
Class JIlKiJl_ 

Book. X-3j£L 

Copyright]^? 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A MANUAL 



OF 



Medieval and Modern 



HISTORY. 



M. E. THALHEIMER. 



FOltMERLY TEACHER OF HISTORY AND COMPOSITION IN THE PACKER COLLEGIATE 
INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. 



NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



THALHEIMER'S HISTORICAL SERIKS. 



Eclectic History of the United States. 
History of England. 
General Hisforv. 
Ancient History. 
Eastern Empires (sepai-ate). 
History of Greece {separate). 
History of Rome {separate). 
Mcdiccval and ATodcrn Hisforv, 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 

WILSON, HINKLE & CO., 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 

Coiyrifi-ht. 1902, by M. E. ThalhPimer. 



THE LIBRARY ©Fj 

GONG8ESS, 
Two C0M» Rbobve 

. Crrv-wocr' entry 

COPY a 



03 lD'i> 



PREFACE. 



The following pages contain a sketch of fourteen centuries, from the 
fall of one Empire at Ravenna to the establishment of another at Berlin. 

To give perfect literary form to such a mass of details would be a task 
beyond either the power or the ambition of the present writer, even were 
it not complicated by the necessity of bringing the work within certain 
material limits adapted to the wants of students. Our humbler attempt 
has been to convey some impression of the continuity of the civil history 
of Europe and its dependencies, under the successive leadei'ship of the 
Goths and the Franks, the Empire and the Spanish power, France and 
England, until the supremacy of the Teutonic tribes at the opening of 
the period finds its counterpart in the predominance of the new German 
Empire and the Anglo-Saxon race, at its close. 

This object has been sought through a simple narration of events. 
Larger generalization might have been more interesting to the mature 
reader, but students will only be able to form and rightly to estimate 
theories when they are in thorough possession of the facts. 

In the grouping of incidents, two methods lay open to the writer. By 
presenting the States of Europe in a series of separate histories, greater 
completeness of execution could have been combined with the easy flow 
of a continuous narrative. But these advantages would have been neu- 
tralized by the lack of any comprehensive view of Europe as a whole — 
a whole, complex, indeed, but possessing, under all its superficial diver- 
sities, several grand principles of unity, whose workings, if we succeed in 
making them apparent, are of -more value than the mere annals of any oi 
all the individual States. The confluence of German ideas and customs with 
Roman civilization and religion must be studied in almost every country 
in Europe, from the subjugation of Gaul, Spain, and Italy, and the " mis- 
sions " of Gregory the Great, to the recent rivalries of northern statesmen 
and prelates, and the correspondence of Bismarck with the Vatican. The 
religious unity of mediaeval Europe, which alone could have produced the 
great tidal movements of the Crusades, is not broken by the Teutonic 
Reformation before another and very different sort of unity, formed and 
fostered by diplomacy, has been already three quarters of a century in 
growth. The new relations arising from discoveries, colonization, and 

(iii) 



iv PREFACE. 

consequent extension of commerce, lead, of necessity, to improvements in 
international law — a science which if perfected would realize and surpass 
the unjustly derided dream of Henry IV, by knitting all Christendom 
into a commonwealth of sovereign States, where reason should take the 
place of force, and the ultimate interests of each, be recognized as identical 
with the interests of all. 

No apology is oflFered for the space allotted to Europe as compared with 
Asia, Africa, or America. In a natural history of mankind, Fijians and 
Hottentots would of course claim an equal share of attention with English- 
men. The philosopher who studies distinctions of race, as revealed in 
language, literature, or mythology, can by no means neglect the ancient 
and high civilizations of India, China, and Japan. Our task is limited to 
the civil history of man, and still more narrowly to those nations whose 
laws or customs have more or less intimately affected our own. It is con- 
ceivable that Hindus or Chinese, through their literature or by immigra- 
tion, may become so important an element in our society, that acquaintance 
with their national history may be essential to a liberal education. But 
the time has not come, nor are materials yet accessible. On the other hand, 
the history of our own country is so universally taught in our schools of 
every grade, that we anticipate a ready pardon for occupying our limited 
space chiefly with details less familiar, though in a large view not less 
essential to a thorough understanding of our national institutions. 

Whatever want of continuity may result from the arrangement which 
we have adopted, will be obviated, it is hoped, by the Eeview Questions at 
the end of each Book, and by the Index which with this view has been 
made as copious as possible. The lack of chronological tables has been 
supplied partly by the lists of sovereigns in the Index, and partly by refer- 
ences to pages on whose margins the dates will be found. The Recapitula- 
tions following each section will aid teachers in passing lightly over certain 
periods whenever the exigencies of the class may require it, while students 
at leisure may be guided to a more liberal course of reading by the list of 
books at the end of the volume. The twelve maps, reduced and adapted 
by Gen. A. von Steinwehr from Spruner's new Historical Atlas, afford an 
invaluable supplement to the text — filling a want which has been lately 
deplored by one of the ablest living historians as accounting for much of 
I lie popular confusion of ideas on historical questions. (Freeman's His- 
torical Essays, pp. 162, 163.) 

It only remains to express the author's sincere and profound gratitude 
for the kind reception accorded to the " Manual of Ancient History," with 
the hope that an equally lenient judgment may await the present more 
difficult, and, therefore, perhaps, more presumptuous enterprise. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

FAOB 

Divisions of Mediaeval and Modern History 13 

Book I.— The Dark Agks. 

Period I. — From the Fall of the Western Empire to the Rise of the Carlovingian Power. 

Geographical Sketch of Europe 15 

Settlements of Goths, Franks, Burgundians, Saxons, etc. ..... 17 

Character and Religion of the Germans 18 

Prankish Kingdom of Clovis and his Descendants ...... 18, 19 

Rise of tlie Mayors of the Palace . 20 

Ostrogothic Kingdom founded by Theodorlc 21-23 

The Lombards in Italy 23,24 

Accession of the Emperor Justinian. Conquests of Belisarius .... 25 

Laws of Justinian . , . 26 

His Successors. Wars of Heraclius . . « . 27 

Reform of the Empire by Leo III ........... 28 

Mohammed and the Saracen Conquests ........ 29-32 

Battle of Tour.s. Rise of the Abbassides 32 

Period 11.— From the Battle of Tours to the Battle of Fontenaye. 

Growth of the Papal Power , . , 33 

Rise of the Carlovingian Monarchy under patronage of the Popes ... 34 

Revival of the Western Roman Empire in Charlemagne ..... 36 

Division of the Carlovingian Monarchies by Treaty of Verdun .... 38 

Growth of Arabic Learning 39 

War of Iconoelasm 40 

Division of Italy between the Eastern and Western Empires .... 41 

Progress of Christian Monarchies in Spain and England ..... 42 

Enterprise of the Nortlimen . . . , 43 

Rise of the Feudal System 44 

Independence of Germany, Italy, Burgundy, France ...... 46 

Settlement of Danes in France and England 47 

Establishment of the Capet Dynasty in France 48 

Norman Conquests in England and Southern Italy 49, 50 

(v) 



vi CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

Growth of the Italian Republics 51, 52 

The Holy Roman Empire Reuuion of Italy and Germany . » . . 53 

Hildebrand and Henry IV 54-56 

Eastern Emperors; Basil I to Alexis I ....;. ... 56-59 

Book II.— The Middle Ages. 

Period I.— The Crusades. 

Supremacy of the Seljukian Turks in Western Asia 61 

Preaching of Peter the Hermit 62 

Departure of the First Crusade 63 

Capture of Jerusalem : Godfrey of Bouillon, King ....... 65 

Rise of Hospitallers and Templars ........... 66 

The Second Crusade 67 

Reconquest of Jerusalem bj^ Saladin 68 

The Third Crusade, Richard Coeur de Lion 68-71 

The Fourth Crusade . 71 

Capture of Constantinople by French and Venetians ...... 72 

Fifth Crusade. Germans in Egypt 74 

Sixth Crusade. Frederic II, King of Jerusalem ....... 75 

Seventh Crusade, led by Louis IX of France . 76 

Last Crusade. Capture of Acre by the Turks . ' . 77 

Extension of Commerce resulting from the Crusades ...... 78 .4^ 

Contests of Guelfs and Ghibellines 80-85 

Accession of the Plantagenets in England ........ 86 

Magna Charta and the first English Parliament . 87 

Rise of Free Cities in France 88 

War of Philip II against the Albigenses; Age of the Lawyers . . . 89,90 

Beginnings of Modern Literature 90 

The Religious Oi'ders and the Inquisition 91 

The Vehm-gericht 91, 92 

State of Europe in A. D. 1300 93, 94 

Extinction of the Templars 95 

Rise of the Swiss Republics 96 

Disputed Succession in the Empire and France. Battle of Crficy ... 97 

War in Brittany and Castile. Death of the Black Prince 98 

Joanna I of Naples. Rienzi's Tribunate at Rome 99 

The Black Death • 100 

Henry V in France. Battle of Agincourt. Joan of Arc 102 

Wars of the Roses. The Tudor Dynasty in England 103 

Louis XI and Charles the Bold 104, 105 

Brittany annexed to B'rance 106 

Progress of the Empire. Battle of Sempach 107 

The Great Schism. Council of Constance 108 



CONTENTS. vii 

FAOB 

Couucil of Basle 109 

Constantinople taken by the Turks . „ , . 110 

Exertions and Death of Pope Pius II Ill 

Rival Claimants to Naples 112 

Constitutions of Venice, Genoa, Florence , ... 113 

Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella . . 114-116 

Europe at close of the Middle Ages. The Hanseatic League . . . .117 

Printing and the Use of Gunpowder 118, 119 

The Schoolmen. Universities. Rise of Modern Languages . . , 120,121 

Revival of Learning and Arts „ . . 122 

Mohammedan Empire : Rise and Fall of the Gaznevides ..... 123 

Conquests of Timour, Zenghis, and the Golden Horde 124^ 

Rise, Greatness, and Fall of the Seljukian Dynasty 125,126 

The Ottoman Empire . 126, 127 

The Mamelukes 127,128 

Book III.— The Modern Era. 

From the Discovery of America to the Close of the Thirty Years'" War. 

Early Discoveries of America 131 

Enterprise of Portuguese and Spaniards . 132 

Voyages of Columbus . 133-135 

Conquest of Mexico and Peru 136, 137 

Spanish Colonization. Enterprise of the French 138 

Rise of the European States-System . 139 

Europe at the Opening of the Sixteenth Century . 140 

Charles VIII. in Italy . . . . . . . 141-143 

Accession and Enterprises of Louis XII. ......... 144 

Kingdom of Naples acquired by Ferdinand of Spain 145 

Reign of Pope Julius II. 147 

The League of Cambray 148-150 

The Holy League . 151 

The " Thunderbolt of Italy." Battle of Ravenna . 152 

Dissolution of the Holy League 153 

Character and Policy of Pope Leo X. 154 

Henry VIII., Francis I., and Charles V. 155-157 

Francis in Italy; his Alliance with the Medici. Death of Fei-dinand . . 158 

League of Cambray dissolved by Peace of Brussels 159 

Death and Character of Cardinal Ximenes 160 

The Field of Cloth of Gold 161 

Causes of the Reformation. Martin Luther 162 

Sale of Indulgences 163 

Luther's Ninety-five Theses 164 

His Appearance at Worms. Reformation in Switzerland 165 



viii CONTENTS. 

PA6B 

Conference at Calais ........ 167 

Death of Leo X. Accession of Adrian ....,..,,. 168 

Pe;isecution of the Moors in Spain ........... 169 

Conquest of Rhodes by the Turks. Defection of Bourbon ..... 170 

Battle of Pavia. Captivity of Francis 1 171-173 

Two Captures of Rome. Pope Clement VII. a Prisoner ..... 174 175 

The Ladies' Peace 17(; 

Revolt of the German Peasantry. League of Torgau ...... 177 

Invasion of Hungary by the Turks. Battle of Mohacz 178 

Confession of Augsburg. League of Smalcald. Peace of Nuremberg , . i80 

Reformation in England. Papal Supremacy Annulled 181 

Crusade of Charles V. in Africa 182 

His Invasion of France 183 

His Oppression of Spain and the Netherlands ........ 184 

Alarming Progress of the Turks . ^ 185 

Battle of Solway Moss. Accession of Mary, Queen of Scots .... 186 

Persecution of Vaudois and Lutherans in France ....... 188 

The Council of Trent . 189 

Elector of Saxony and Landgrave of Hesse in Captivity 190 

Accession of Edward VI. in England; Henry II. in France 191 

Ascendency of the Guises in France and Scotland 192, 193 

First Religious War in Germany ended by Peace of Passau 195 

Unsuccessful Siege of Metz by Charles V 196 

Mary, Queen of England , her Marriage with Philip of Spain .... 197 

Abdication and Death of Charles V. Rise of the Jesuits 198-200 

Wars of France and Spain in Italy and the Netherlands . . . .' , 201 

Peace of Cateau Cambrfisis. Accession of Elizabeth in England . . . 202 

Persecutions in France. Death of Henry II. 203 

Suppression of the Reformation in Spain 205 

Wars of Religion in France 206, 207 

Crusade against the Moriscoes 208 

War with the Turks. Victory of Christendom at Lepanto ..... 209 

Reign and Imprisonment of Mary, Queen of Scots . 210 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Eve 211 

Prosperity of the Netherlands 212 

Regency of the Duchess of Parma. Rise of the " Beggars " ..... 213 

Duke of Alva, Regent. His " Council of Blood " . 214 

Resistance by the Prince of Orange. Death of Egniout and Horn . . .215 

Siegesof Haarlem, Alkmaar and Leyden . 216,217 

Pacification of Ghent 218" 

Henry of Valois resigns the Crown of Poland for that of France . . .219 

Rise of the League 220 

Portugal and its Dependencies conquered by Philip II 221 

John of Austria, Regent of ttie Netherlands, succeeded by Alex, of Parma . 223 



CONTENTS. 



IX 



PAOB 

Northern Netherlands joined in Union of Utrecht 224 

Dnke of Anjou clioseu Protector of the Netlierlands ...... 225 

His Treachery and Expulsion. Assassination of the Prince of Orange . . 226 

Siege and Ruin of Antwerp 227 

England threatened by the Invincible Armada ....... 229 

Religious Wars in France. Murder of Guise and of Henry III. . . . 230, 231 

Accession of Henry of Bourbon 232 

Disasters and Death of Philip II. of Spain 233 

Decline of Turkish Power. Europe at close of the 16th Ceutuiy . . . 234, 235 

Reign of Henry IV. Improvement of French Industries 236 

Death of Elizabeth of England. Truce of Bergen-op-Zoom 238 

Counter-reformation in Southern Germany 239 

Assassination of Henry IV. War for the Cleve-Duchies . , . i . 240 

Rise of Richelieu. Regency of Marie de Medici 241 

Thirty Years' War begun in Bohemia 242-244 

Condition of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Poland 245, 246 

Military Training of Gustavus Adolphus ......... 247 

Richelieu, Prime Minister of France 248, 249 

Intervention of Christian of Denmark in the Thirty Years' War . . 250, 251 

Invasion of Germany by the King of Sweden . 252 

Victory at Leipzig. Capture and Occupation of Mentz . . . o . . 253 

Death of Tilly. Treachery of Wallenstein 254 

Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus 255 

Congress of Heilbronn. Death of Wallenstein. Defeat of Swedes at Nordlingen 256 

Alsace and Lorraine annexed to France 257 

Portugal independent of Spain. Dynasty of Braganga 259 

Death of Richelieu and Louis XIII. Mazarin Minister. Louis XIV. King . 260 
Victories of Condg and Turenne. Accession of Christina of Sweden . 261 

Thirty Years' War ended by Peace of Westphalia . . . 262-264 

Book IV.— Modern: Era Continued. 

Prom the Peace of Westphalia to the Prench Revolution. 

Progress of Civil Liberty in England 267 

Acts of the Long Parliament. Civil War 268 

Execution of Charles I. His Son Crowned in Scotland 269 

The English Commonwealth. War with the Dutch 270 

Oliver Cromwell, Protector 271 

Restoration of Charles II i . . . 273 

Minority of Louis XIV. Civil War of the Fronde . . . ^ . .■ . 274 

Death of Mazarin. Treaty of the Pyrenees 276 

Reign of Louis XIV. His War for the Spanish Netherlands .... 277 

Peace of Breda. Triple Alliance. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle .... 278 

Subserviency of England to France. Peace of Nimeguen 280 



X 



CONTENTS. 



PAQE 

Abdication of Christina of Sweden. Ambition of Clitirles X 281 

Wars of Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark 282-284 

Venice and the Empire at war wltli the Turks. Treaty of Vasvar . . . 285 

Delivereuee of Vienna by John Sobieski 286 

Venetian Conquests in Greece. Eugene of Savoy 287 

Self-education and National Reforms of Peter the Great .... 288, 289 

Capture of Strasbourg by Louis XIV. . 290 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 291 

Reign of Charles II. in England 292 

Rye House Plot. Execution of Russell and Sidney. Accession of James II. 293 

Flight of the King. Accession of William and Mary 294 

Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. 295 

Peace of Ryswick. Treaty for Partition of Spanish Possessions . . .297 

War of the Spanish Succession 298-303 

Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt 303-305 

Death of Anne of England and Louis XIV. of France ...... 305 

Wars of Charles XII. of Sweden with Peter of Russia 307, 308 

Defeat of Charles at Pultawa. His Flight to the Turks 309 

His Return and Death. Peace of Nystadt. Ascendency of Russia . . 310,311 

European Colonies in Asia, Africa, and America 311-319 

Louis XV. King of P'rance. Regency of the Duke of Orleans .... 819 

The Mississippi Scheme. Colonization of Louisiana 820 

" Pragmatic Sanction " of Emperor Charles VI. ....... 321 

War of the Polish Succession 322 

Establishment of the Spanish Bourbons at Naples 323 

War of the Austrian Succession. Age of Frederic the Great . . . 324-329 

Seven Years' War 330-336 

Reign of Catherine the Great. Partition of Poland . . . . . 337-342 

Oppression of British Colonists in America. Their Resistance . . . 343, 344 

Declaration of Independence. Aid from France 345 

Alliance with Spain and Holland. Armed Neutrality of Northern Nations 346 

Treaty of Paris. Independence of the United States 347 

Adoption of the Constitution. Geo. Washington, President .... 348 

Expulsion and Suppression of the Jesuits in Europe 349 

Innovations of Joseph II. The Age of Revolutions 350-353 

Book V.— Modern Era Continxted. 

The Age of Mevolutions. 

The French Revolution 355-357 

Intervention of Foreign Powers 358, 359 

The Reign of Terror 360 

Trial and Execution of Louis XVI 361, 362 

Fall of the Gironde. Execution of the Queen. Worship of Reason . . . 363 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



PACK 

Countei' Revolution in La Vendue. Capture of Toulon ...... 364 

Fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins . 365 

French Victories in Belgium and Holland. The Batavian Republic . . .366 

Death of Louis XVII. The Directory 367 

Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy 308, 369 

Peace of Cam po Form io. Fall of the Venetian Republic ..... 370 
Revolution in Switzerland. Helvetic Republic allied with France . . . 371 
Wars in Italy and Germany. The Parthenopeau Republic .... 373, 374 

Fi-ench Directory abolished. Bonaparte First Consul 375 

His Second Campaign in Italy 376 

Peace of Luneville. Armed Neutrality of the Northern Nations . . . 377 

Treaty of Amiens. Preparation of the Code Napoleon 378 

Napoleon Crowned Emperor of the French and King of Italy .... 380 
Victories at Ulm, Nordlingen, Austerlitz. Defeat off Trafalgar . . . .381 

Overthrow of the " Roman Empire " 382 

Napoleon's Camiaaign against Prussia. His Entry into Berlin .... 383 
British Orders in Council. Napoleon's Berlin and Milan Decrees ... 384 

Peace of Tilsit 385 

French Conquest of Portugal. Bragan^a Empire in Brazil . . . . . 386 

Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain . 387 

War witli Austria. Revolt of tlie Tyrol 388 

Peace of Schonbrunn. Austrian Marriage of Napoleon 389 

Peninsular War. Victories of Wellington 390 

Napoleon's Invasion of Russia. Burning of Moscow 391,392 

German War of Liberation. Napoleon's Victories in Saxony . . . .393 

His Defeat at Leipzig. Dissolution of his Empire 394 

Capture of Paris by the Allies. First Abdication of Napoleon . . . -. 395 
Restoration of the Bourbons. Napoleon's Return from Elba .... 396 
Battle of Waterloo. Abdication, Exile, and Death of Napoleon . . . . ' 397 

War of Great Britain with the United States 399 

Treaties of Ghent and Paris. Congress of Vienna. The Holy Alliance . . 400 

Restoration of Spanish and Italian Bourbons 402 

Liberalism in Italy, Hungary, and Germany 403 

Revolutions of A. D. 1830 in France and Belgium : 405 

War of Greek Independence 407-409 

Fiench and Englisli Intervention in Syria 410 

Isabella II. in Spain. Carlists and Christinos 411 

Second French Republic. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, President ... 412 

Revolutions of 1818 in Germany, Hungary, and Italy 41.3-417 

Ooitp rf'e^of at Paris. Napoleon III. Emperor of the French .... 418,419 

War of France, England, and Turkey with Russia 420 

Invasion of the Crimea. Capture of Sevastopol 421 

War of Italian Nationality. Battles of Magenta and Solferino . . . 422,423 
Victor Emmanuel King of Italy. War for Schleswig and Holstein ... 424 



Xll 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Seven Weeks' War. Extinction of Kingdom of Hanover 425 

Leadership in Germany transferred to Prussia ........ 426 

Liberal Reforms in tlie Austro-Hungarian Monarcl)y 427 

Rise of tlie British Empire in India 428-430 

Wars with Cliinese, Afghans, and Sililis . 431, 432 

Mutiny of the Sepoys. Siege of Luclinow . . 433 

The British in Australia and New Zealand .... ... 434, 435 

Rapid Growth of the United States. War with Mexico 437, 438 

The Missouri Compromise. Its Repeal 439 

Secession of eleven States. Civil War . 440-443 

The French in Mexico. Maximilian, of Austria, Emperor 444 

Bismarck and Benedetti. Flight of Isabella II. from Spain .... 445, 446 

Franco-Prussian War 447 

Surrender of the Emperor at Sedan 448 

Fall of the Empire. Siege of Paris 449 

Provisional Government. Surrender of Strasbourg and Metz .... 450 

The New German Empire. Surrender of Paris 451 

Cession of Alsace and Lorraine. Tlie Commune 452 

Annexation of the Roman States to Italy. The Spanish Republic . . .453 

MAPS. 

I. Europe at the Beginning of the Sixth Century .... to face 17 

II. The Carlovingian Empire 33 

III. Europe during the latter Half of the Tenth Century 49 

IV. Syria at the Time of the Crusades 65 

V. France before A. D. 1461 . , 97 

VI. Northern Italy, from 1492 to 1797 .145 

VII. Europe during the Thirty Years' War . ...... 257 

VIII. The British Isles, showing Places of Historical Interest .... 273 

IX. Map of the World, showing the Colonial Possessions 305 

X. Region between Paris and Berlin, showing ihe Principal Battle Fields. 337 

XI. Europe during the Reign of Napoleon I ........ 385 

XII. Europe in 1872 . . = . . . , , 449 



INTRODUCTION. 



Medieval History covers the thousand years which divide the 
breaking uji of the Roman dominion in the West from the formation 
of the modern European States-system, near the close of the fifteenth 
century. This interval between the old order and the new may, how- 
ever, be conveniently viewed in two widely contrasted periods. During 
the first six hundred years, the forces which tend to anarchy and disso- 
lution were apparently the stronger, excepting while they were held in 
check by the genius of Charlemagne. These six centuries are known as 
the Dark Ages. Their chief events were the migrations of the northern 
tribes; the repulse of the Saracens, who aimed to annex Earope to the 
dominion of the Caliphs; the revival of the Western Empire, and the 
rise of the Feudal System. 

The next four centuries are more properly called the Middle Ages. 
They are marked by greater activity of the tendencies to order and 
civilization : tribes settle into nations, the remnant of the migratory 
impulse expending itself in pilgrimages and crusades; languages are 
developed and improved; chivalry refines the manners of the warrior, 
but itself declines, as feudal chiefs become subject to consolidated mon- 
archies; learning is diffused, and industry attains something of its just 
dignity and importance. 

Modern History may with equal advantage be divided into three parts, 
comprising respectively the Rise, Establishment, and Dissolution of the 
Balance of Power in Europe; the first period nearly coinciding with 
that of the discoveries and explorations upon the western continent, and 

(13) 



14 INTRODUCTION. 

the opening of maritime traffic with the eastern; the second with the 
founding, and the third with the emancipation, of the greater number 
of European colonies in America. 

This Manual includes, therefore, five Books: 

I. The Dark Ages, A. D. 476-1096. 
II. The Middle Ages, A. D. 1096-1492. 

III. Discoveries in America, and Rise of States-system in Europe, 

A. D. 1492-1648. 

IV. From the Peace of Westphalia to the Beginning of Revolutions in 

Europe, A. D. 1648-1789. 
V. From the French Revolution to the Rise of the German Empire, 
A. D. 1789-1871. 



BOOK I. 

THE DAEK AGES. 

A. I>. 476-1096. 



Period I. From the Fall of the Western Empire to the 
EiSE OF THE Carlovingian Power, A. D. 476-732, 

GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF EUEOPE. 

1. The field of Ancient History comprised only the shores of the 
Mediterranean and a part of Western Asia, the seat of empire having 
been gradually removed westward from Nineveh to Rome. Mediaeval 
History is concerned with Europe and the adjacent coasts of Asia and 
Africa. Only within the Modern period have improvements in naviga- 
tion, together with the increase of enterprise and intelligence, drawn the 
whole world within the circle of national and commercial intercourse. 

2. Europe, though the smallest and least fertile of the continents, is 
tlie nursery whence art, learning, and civilization have been trans- 
planted to the remotest regions of the globe. Its position at the center 
of the land-hemisphere, its varied coast-line deeply indented by inlets 
of the sea, and its islands richly endowed with metals and other valua- 
ble productions, have made it, if we may so say, the most sociable of 
the continents, inviting at every point the entrance of influences from 
abroad. Its climate is most favorable to human energy; the moderate 
fertility of its soil has developed the skill, industry, and strength of its 
inhabitants, while intensifying the idea of property, so essential to civil- 
ization, but always lacking in races which live indolently upon the 
bounties of a more indulgent Nature. That least favored of the Eu- 
ropean countries, formed by the marshy and sandy deltas of the Rhine, 
the Meuse, and the Scheldt — partly below the level of the ocean, and 
preserved from inundation only by incessant vigilance and toil — became, 
in fact, five centuries ago, the richest and most populous portion of the 
continent. 

(15) 



16 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

3. It is only needful to sketch those natural features of Europe, 
which have had an important influence upon its history. The three 
great southern peninsulas were, almost of necessity, for more than two 
thousand years its most civilized portion. Several ranges or systems of 
mountains, including the Pyrenees, Cevennes, and Alps, the Carpathian 
and Caucasian ranges, form a nearly continuous wall separating the 
scenes of the old civilization from those peculiar to the new. North- 
ward of these mountains begins an immense plain, bounded on the west 
by the Atlantic and German Oceans, and the mountains of Norway; on 
the north by the Arctic Ocean, and on the east by the Ural Mountains 
and the Caspian Sea. The western portion of this plain is traversed by 
many small but important rivers, of which the Loire, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, 
Oder, and Vistula are chief. 

The central and eastward portion is divided by a range of low hills, 
which separate the head-waters of the Dwina and Petchora, on the north, 
from those of the Volga, Don, and Dnieper, on the south. The 
northern section is an almost barren waste, marshy in summer and 
frozen in winter. The southern is fertile in grain, excepting the steppes 
bordering the Black Sea, which produce only a coarse grass. This great 
inland plain, though the scene of many interesting events between the 
ninth and the twelfth centuries, has only within the last two hundred 
years had any important share in the general interests of Europe. 

4. Among European islands, we need only mention the most important 
of all, the British group. Situated in the current of the Gulf-stream, 
and thus endowed with a mild and equable climate, England is the 
home of the most vigorous race on the globe. Her natural gifts are 
those which stimulate and aid, instead of superseding, enterprise. The 
tin mines of Cornwall and the Scilly Isles first drew Phoenician mariners 
to explore those remote seas; and innumerable manufactui'es, supported 
by native coal and iron, have made England the great commercial center 
of the world. Her part in history before the Norman Conquest was 
comparatively unimportant. During the wars and tumults of the Dark 
Ages, Ireland, protected by her stormy seas, afforded the most secure and 
peaceful refuge for piety and learning; and the spirit of independence, 
nurtured by their insular position, has ever since made these islands an 
hospitable asylum for victims of oppression in other lands. The channel 
which separates England from the continent, though narrow, is sufficiently 
dangerous of navigation, owing to its variable winds and currents, to have 
formed a usually effective barrier against hostile invasions. 



TU]<: NOILTIIKJW NATIONS. 17 



SETTLEMENTS ()¥ T\\V\ NORTHERN NATIONS. 

5. WliiMi Odoiicor,* uKsuDiJiig llio royal title, ended the illusory reign 
of Roniiiius AugUHtulu8, the TcuLoiiie or German race was already pre- 
dominant in Europe. The Vimjothu; kingdom of Euric covered all Spain, 
and that part of Gaul which iw bounded by the Loire on the north and 
by the Rhone on the east. His court at Aries was a center of learning 
and refinement, and nations even as distant as the Persians acknowl- 
edged by their embassies his preeminence among European sovereigns. 
His weaker descendants were driven south of the Pyrenees, but their 
kingdom in Spain lasted two hundred years, until it was overthrown by 
the Saracens, A. D. 711. The iSuevi in north-western Spain were tribu- 
tary to Euric. The Odroyoihn were at this time between the Danube 
and the Adriatic. The Franh, who soon by their conquests gave a new 
name to the greater part of ancient Gaul, were still mostly beyond its 
limits. Of the many tribes bearing this common name, the Kipuarians 
were on the Rhine near Cologne, and the more powerful Salians were 
between the Seine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt. The Burgundians, in 
the country comprising the valley of the Rhone and the Swiss lakes, 
had impressed their name on that great dominion which as kingdom, 
duchy, or county, though often dismembered and sometimes subdued, was 
yet for a thousand years to rival the power of the French kings. 

6, Great numbers of the Saxona, whose piratical craft had vexed the 
coasts of Europe for a century, were now settled among the wooded 
inlets of northern Gaul, and with their kindred allies, the Angles, had 
made the important conquest of southern Britain. Of their eight king- 
doms in that island, Wessex (West Saxony) became ultimately most 
powerful, and its chiefs were the ancestors of all English sovereigns 
but five, since the ninth century. The continental Saxons occupied the 
country from a little northward of the Rhine to the Baltic^ The Alemanni 
possessed southern Germany, with Alsace and northern Switzerland. The 
Thuringians were between the head-waters of the Danube and those of the 
Elbe. The GepidcB possessed the region now covered by Moldavia, Wal- 
lacliia, and eastern Hungary. The Vandals, besides their original seats 
south and east of the Baltic, had been, since A. D. 4.39, masters of north- 
ern Africa, with Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. 

7» In contrast with all these German tribes, colonies of Bretons, expelled 
from their native island by the Saxons, were mingled with the original 
Celtic inhabitants of north-western Gaul, and occupied the peninsula 
between the mouths of the Seine and Loire, which still bears their name. 
Scotland, Ireland, and the mountains of Wales were also inhabited by 
unconquered Celts. A fragment of the ancient empire was still main- 



* See Anc. Hist., p. 361. 
M. H.— 2. 



18 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

tained in tlie heart of Gaul, by Syagrius, who called himself " Kiug of the 
Romans." In the great plains eastward from the Elbe dwelt the Slavo- 
nians, a pastoral people, more numerous but less powerful than the 
Teutons — ancestors of the modern Poles, Bohemians, Bulgarians, lUyrians, 
and a very large proportion of the Russians. The Finnish tribes occupied 
the frozen marshes to the northward. In the south-east, the Eastern or 
Greek Empire covered nearly the present dominion of the Turks. 

8, The Germans, from whom most of the nations of Europe are in a 
greater or less degree descended, were described by Tacitus as distin- 
guished from the degenerate races of the south by their huge and robust 
frames animated by unbounded energy, by their respect for the sacred 
dignity of women, and by "a sense they called honor, which led them to 
sacrifice their life rather than their word." In the time of Tacitus they 
were divided into fifty tribes, but these were united into five confedera- 
tions: the Saxons, Franks, Alemanni, Burgundians, and Goths. The 
Saxons on the continent had no kings except in Avar, when the nobles 
chose by lot one of their own number to be their leader. The other tribes 
had each a royal family supposed to be descended from Odin, from which 
the king was elected by a free vote of his comrades ; as the Ostrogoths 
had the Amals, the Visigoths the Balti, the Franks the Merovings, etc. 
The affairs of the Franks were settled in an assembly of all the warriors 
or freemen, held every year in March, or afterward in May. 

9, In their northern forests the German tribes worshiped Odin as 
supreme, with Freya, his wife ; Thor, the thunderer, their son ; Baldur, 
the sun-god, and others of less importance. At the commencement of our 
period a majority of the Teutonic race was still pagan, but the Goths, 
Vandals, and Burgundians were Arian Christians. The Anglo-Saxons 
were instructed in Christianity by an embassy of monks, sent, A. D. 592, 
by Pope Gregory I. ; and Winifrid of Devonshire became, in turn, the 
Apostle of Germany, to whose intrepid zeal 100,000 continental Saxons 
owed their conversion. He is better known by his Roman name and 
title, as St. Boniface. 

10, The Frankish Kingdom. Chlodwig, or Clovis, succeeded his 
father as king of the Salian Franks, A. D. 481, and became the first .Ger- 
man ruler of all France. He drew to his standard the other Prankish 
tribes, extinguished the remnants of Roman power in the person of 
Syagrius, and conquered the Alemanni in a great battle at Zlilpich, 
A. D. 496. It was in consequence of this victory that he renounced the 
worship of Odin. His wife, a Burgundian princess, was a Christian ; and 
his confidence in the sincerity of her faith led him to invoke " Clotilda's 
God" in the heat of the battle. He was subsequently baptized at Rheims, 
with 3,000 followers. The conversion of Clovis gained him the powerful 
support of the clergy, both against the pagan tribes and against the Arian 



THE NORTHERN NATIONS. 19 

Goths and Burgundians. He defeated the latter A. D. 500, and, in 507, 
broke the power of the Visigoths by a battle near Poitiers. 

The alliance of the Church with the Frankish monarchy made each, in 
its own sphere, preeminent in France. The clergy, representing Roman 
culture, and alone, as a class, skilled in the Latin language, served not 
only as mediators with the people, but as embassadors to foreign courts. 
The civil government south of the Loire was chiefly in their hands. On 
the other hand, French kings, from Clovis down, have vaunted their title 
of " Eldest Sons of the Church." All the barbarian sovereigns in Italy, 
Spain, and Graul acknowledged the superiority of the Court of Constanti- 
nople ; and it was therefore no unmeaning compliment when Anastasius, 
Emperor of the East, sent to Clovis the purple robe and diadem of a 
consul, thus raising his dignity, in the eyes of his Gallo-Eoman subjects, 
to that of a lieutenant of the empire. By the murder of many Merovin- 
gian princes, Clovis made himself, toward the end of his life, sole monarch 
of the Franks. 

11. The four sons of Clovis, upon his death in A. D. 511, divided his 
dominions among them. Theodoric, the eldest, reigned at Metz over the 
north-eastern country. The fourfold division into Austrasia, Neustria, 
Burgundy, and Aquitaine was effected somewhat later. Theodoric, while 
himself pursuing a savage career of violence, caused wise men, versed in 
ancient customs, to frame separate codes of laws for his Eipuarian, Ale- 
mannic, and Bavarian subjects, substituting Christian for pagan principles 
where these prevailed. Theodebert, his son, received gifts both from the 
Emperor Justinian and from Vitiges, king of the Italian Goths, as the 
price of his alliance in their war against each other. He defeated both 
armies near Pavia, A. D. 539, and then ravaged the peninsula, until 
famine and disease had destroyed two-thirds of his forces, and he with- 
drew beyond the Alps. To avert similar incursions in future, Justinian 
resigned the claim of the Eastern empire to the sovereignty of Gaul, and 
thenceforth the German kings placed their own instead of the imperial 
image upon their coins. 

12. The fierce dissensions of the family of Clovis fill some of the darkest 
pages of history. Sigebert and Chilperic, his grandsons, married two 
daughters of the king of the Visigoths in Spain. Galswintha, the elder, 
was soon murdered by Fredegonde, a low-lived favorite of her husband, 
Chilperic, who rewarded the crime by raising the murderess to the throne 
of Neustria. Brunehaut, the wife of Sigebert, stirred him to revenge upon 
his brother the death of her sister ; and the mutual hatreds of the two 
queens distracted the Frankish dominion, not only during the reigns of 
their husbands, but during the long minorities of their children and 
grandchildren. 

The personal strife was aggravated by the rivalry between Neustria and 



20 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. 

Austrasia, i. e., between the Romanized and the purely German party 
among the Franks. The people near the Rhine, continually reinforced by 
fresh arrivals of their countrymen, kept their German habits almost un- 
mixed with Roman influences ; while the Franks of the interior, though 
conquerors, were so far outnumbered by the Gallo-Roman population, 
that they soon adopted the language and culture of their subjects. 
Brunehaut, though queen of Austrasia, belonged to the Roman party, 
through her ardent love for literature, art, and Christianity. She was a 
friend and correspondent of Pope Gregory the Great, whom she aided in 
his scheme for the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons ; and though herself a 
prey to cruel passions, she warred for fifty years against barbarian misrule, 
in the interests of Christian civilization. She was defeated at last by the 
Austrasian nobles, led by Pepin of Landen, and aided by the forces of 
Neustria and Burgundy. Falling into the hands of Clotaire, son of Fred- 
egonde, the aged queen suffered three days of torture, ended by a brutal 
death. 

13. Clotaire II. reigned as sole king of the Franks, A. D. 613-628, 
Under his son Dagobert the Merovingian race reached its greatest extent 
of dominion, only to sink immediately into indolence and incapacity. 
For a hundred years the kings bear no higher title in history than those 
of faineants, or do-nothings, and inse?isati, or idiots. The real power was 
exercised by the bishops and great nobles, especially by a class of officials 
called Mayors of the Palace. Among these Pepin of Heristal, grandson 
of Pepin of Landen, became chief ruler in Austrasia, vanquished the 
Neustrian nobility in a decisive battle at Testri, A. D. 687, and made 
himself master of France, which he governed twenty-seven years with 
great prudence and success. The Merovingian king, a mere phantom of 
royalty, was shown to the people once a year at the Field of March ; at 
other times he was held in a sort of mild captivity. 

Charles Martel, the still more powerful son of Pepin, established his 
authority over the three kingdoms of Burgundy, Neustria, and Austrasia. 
He divided many rich lands of the Church among his followers, on condi- 
tion of military service, and thus laid the foundation of the feudal system 
in France. (See |§ 76, 78.) The great crisis of the Arab invasions — 
soon to be described under the history of the Saracens — led to the rise 
of Ms family into an important dynasty of kings. 

At the fall of the Western Empire, Europe was largely governed by Teutonic tribes, 
of which the Goths, Franks, and Saxons were most powerful. The few unconquered 
Celts were on the west, and the yet uncivilized Slavonians on the east of the Germans ; 
while the Finns occupied the north, and the Greek empire a part of the south of 
Europe. The German worshipers of Odin and Thor were superior in virtue, though 



OSTRO GOTHIC KINGDOM IN ITALY. 21 

inferior in civilization, to the Romans. England was Christianized through the teach- 
ings of Augustine ; Germany, through those of St. Boniface. Clovis, king of the Franks, 
allied himself with the Church, and received the consular dignity from the emperor 
of the East. The crimes of his successors produced a century of anarchy and misery in 
the Frankish dominions. The Merovingians then sinking into incapacity, the "Mayors" 
gained power, and the Carlovingian race became supreme. 



OSTROGOTHIC KINGDOM IN ITALY, A. D. 493-554. 

14. In Italy the dominion of the Herulian Odoacer gave way, after 
seventeen years, to that of Theodoric, king of the East Goths. This great 
leader had been educated as a hostage at the court of Constantinople, 
where he added Greek discipline to Gothic energy; and under his firm 
and wise rule of thirty-three years, peace and prosperity returned to the 
half depopulated country. Though the Gothic soldiers received one-third 
of the lands of the peninsula, they equally shared the taxes and were 
forced to respect the rights of their Italian neighbors; and while the 
former were ready at any moment to follow their chiefs to war, the latter 
were encouraged and protected in the industrious arts of peace. Two 
consuls, of whom one was chosen by the emperor, the other by the Gothic 
king, preserved the venerated forms of Roman government. All the Teu- 
tonic nations looked up to Theodoric as their head. During the minority 
of his grandson, Amalaric, who was also a grandson of Euric, he became 
ruler of the West Goths, and his united dominions extended from Sicily 
to the Danube, and from Belgrade to the Atlantic. When Amalaric 
became of age, he was lifted upon the shields of the Visigothic chiefs, 
and became king of Spain, A. D. 522. 

15. Himself an Arian, Theodoric protected all forms of religion among 
his subjects. The shops, synagogues, and dwellings of the Jews having 
been burnt in several cities during fanatical riots, the mobs were com- 
pelled to make good the property they had destroyed. This impartial 
justice turned their rage against the king ; and the last days of Theodoric 
were imbittered by the proof that, while laboring for the best interests of 
his people, he had failed to win their love. Boethius, * the most illustri- 
ous member of the Senate, and one of the brightest ornaments of the 



* In his prison at Pavia, Boethius wrote an admirable treatise on the " Consolation 

of Philosophy," which was afterward translated into Saxon by Alfred the Great. 

Cassiodorus, the learned secretary of Theodoric, founded at Ravenna the oldest of 
modern public libraries. After thirty years of high office at court, he retired at the age 
of seventy to a monastery which he established at Squillace ; and during his thirty re- 
maining years — for his life was prolonged to nearly a century — he gave an impulse to 
monastic learning which lasted through the Middle Ages. He expended large sums for 
manuscripts, which he encouraged the monks to copy ; and during the tumults of the 
following centuries, convent libraries were the safe depositaries of the learning of the 
western world. 



22 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

court, was put to death on a charge of plotting with the Eastern emperor 
for the expulsion of the Goths from Italy. The execution of his father- 
in-law, the venerable Symmachus, soon followed; but remorse for these 
acts hastened the death, also, of Theodoric, who died A. D. 526. 

16. His grandson, Athalaric, succeeded to the Ostrogothic kingdom at 
the age of ten years, under the regency of his mother, Amalasontha. The 
reign of this Gothic queen, aided by the experience of Cassiodorus, was as 
wise and beneficent as that of her father ; but her son disappointed the 
anxious care which she expended upon his education. He rebelled against 
her, incited by his barbarous companions, who taught him to despise the 
joint authority of a woman and a philosopher; and at the age of sixteen 
this last of the Amals died of intemperance. His mother, in spite of the 
Gothic law or custom which excluded women from the throne, plotted to 
retain sovereign power in her own hands, while conferring the name of 
king upon her cousin Theodatus, whom she married. But Theodatus, in- 
censed at being made the tool of his ambitious wife, ordered Amalasontha 
to be strangled in her bath, A. D., 534. 

17. The Emperor Justinian, now reigning at Constantinople, gladly 
asserted his supremacy by interfering as the avenger of Amalasontha. 
His great general, Belisarius, who had lately overthrown the Vandal 
kingdom in Africa, landed with a small force in Sicily, quickly subdued 
that island, and wrested southern Italy from the Goths. Rome was sur- 
rendered without a blow, by its senate and clergy, A. D. 536 ; but Vitiges, 
the successor of Theodatus, mustered a powerful army and besieged 
Belisarius more than a year in the Eternal City. The sepulcher of 
Hadrian, now the Castle of St. Angelo, was then first used as a fortress, 
and the beautiful Greek statues which adorned it were hurled down upon 
the heads of the besiegers. 

In a single assault the Goths lost 30,000 men ; and, at length, Vitiges 
was compelled to draw off his reduced army to Eavenna, leaving all Italy ^ 
to Belisarius. Ten thousand Burgundians, who had come to the aid of 
the Goths, destroyed the splendid city of Milan ; and the next year The- 
odebert, their Frankish sovereign, passed the Alps with 100,000 men, 
disguising his intentions until he fell, almost at the same moment, upon 
both the Gothic and the Eoman army near Pavia, and gained a complete 
victory. (See | 11.) 

18. Eavenna, which could not be taken by force, was at length reduced 
by famine. The Goths, weary of the unfortunate reign of Vitiges, begged 
Belisarius himself to become their king. He pretended to accept their 
oflPer ; but as soon as the keys of the fortress were in his hands, he de- 
clared that he held them only as the faithful subject and lieutenant of 
Justinian. Vitiges exchanged his uncomfortable crown for the rank of 
senator, and ample estates in the Eastern empire. 



OSTBOGOTHIG KINGDOM IN ITALY. 23 

19. Pavia alone, with its garrison of 1,000 Goths, still held out ; but as 
soon as Belisarius had been recalled to Constantinople, the new king, 
Totila, commenced his rapid and triumphant march for the recovery of 
Italy. Many cities which had welcomed Belisarius as a deliverer, had 
now suffered long enough from the fraud and oppression of the Byzantine 
officials, to sigh for a return of the Gothic rule. Rome was retaken by 
Totila, A. D. 546; its senators were carried away to Campanian prisons, 
and its people were scattered in exile. Belisarius, returning, soon regained 
the city, and defeated the Goths in a decisive battle. But the great gen- 
eral was fettered by the ungenerous suspicions of his master. Totila, 
A. D. 549, again took Rome, following up his success by the conquest of 
Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and the invasion of Greece. An embassy, 
undertaken by the Pope himself, now induced Justinian to send a suffi- 
cient force, under Narses, for the recovery of Italy. In a great battle 
near Tagina, Totila was slain, and Rome for the fifth time in one reign 
changed masters, A. D. 552. 

20. Teias, the last king of the Italian Goths, implored aid from the 
German rulers of France, but before it could arrive he was killed in a 
battle at Cumae, A. D. 553. The following autumn, 75,000 Germans 
crossed the Alps, and ravaged all Italy as far as Messina and the Straits 
of Otranto. But the Ostrogothic kingdom, after sixty years' duration 
(A. D. 493-553) had already yielded to the lieutenants of the empire, who 
ruled all Italy with the title of Exarchs of Ravenna. The Goths either 
emigrated in quest of fresh lands or became absorbed into the mass of the 
people. Narses, the first and greatest of the exarchs, reigned A. D. 554- 
568. The territories wrested from the Vandals were likewise erected into 
the exarchate of Africa. 

21. The Lombard Kingdom, A. D. 572-774. The Ostrogoths, during 
the time of their power, effectually guarded the line of the Danube against 
fresh incursions of the northern barbarians ; but during the long wars in 
Italy, the Gepidse crossed the river and occupied many unguarded fort- 
resses. To expel these intruders, Justinian called in the Lombards, or 
Long-Beards, a savage though Teutonic race, who were pictured to the 
terrified imaginations of the Greeks as drinking human blood with the 
mouths of dogs. With the aid of the Huns, a still fiercer horde of Asiatic 
savages, the Lombards, in thirty years, conquered and exterminated the 
Gepidse. The Huns were rewarded with the territories now comprising 
Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and the parts of Hungary beyond the 
Danube, where their empire lasted 230 years. (See | 54.) 

22. The Lombards, under Alboin their king, turned upon Italy. As 
if to further their plans, Narses had been degraded, and replaced by the 
incompetent Longinus. Though the strong walls of Pavia withstood a 
three years' siege, the rest of the country, as far as Ravenna and Rome, 



24 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

was easily conquered and divided into thirty duchies. Upon the death of 
Clepho, the successor of Alboin, the thirty dukes continued ten years 
(A. D. 674-584) to govern in council without a king. But this divided 
government was insufficient defense against the Greeks on the east and 
the Franks on the west. 

Autharis, son of Clepho, receiving the crown, successfully withstood 
three Frankish invasions, and extended his kingdom from the Rhsetian 
Alps to the southern extremity of Italy, where he founded the great 
duchy of Benevento. His widow, Theodolinda, was intrusted by the 
nation with the choice of his successor. She chose Agilulf, duke of Turin; 
reclaimed him, with many of his subjects, from the Arian to the Catholic 
faith, and was rewarded by Pope Gregory I. with the famous Iron Crown, 
which was said to have been forged from one of the nails of the True 
Cross. 

23. Italy was now divided between the Lombard kingdom and the ex- 
archate of Eavenna — the latter including a great part of the recent states 
of the Church, beside Venice, Naples, and the Calabrian coast. The 
Lombards never mingled, as the Goths had done, on friendly terms with 
the Italians. The rude manners of the former and the cowardly self- 
indulgence of the latter were objects of reciprocal disdain. Nevertheless, 
the long-bearded monsters of the north had already acquired some of the 
best fruits of civilization: the system of laws framed by their king, 
Eotharis, is esteemed the best of the barbarian codes,* and their kingdom 
in Italy was more peaceful and prosperous than any other which had been 
formed from the fragments of the empire: 

u,EC-A.:piTTjijj^Tioasr. 

Theodoric the Great founded the second barbarian khigdom in Italy, and bestowed one- 
third of its lands upon his Ostrogothic followers. Peace, justice, and liberality were the 
glories of his reign, but its end was marred by criminal severity, and he died burdened 
with remorse. His daughter, Amalasontha, succeeded to the sovereignty, first as regent for 
her son, Athalaric, and afterward in the name of her husband, Theodatus. Her violent 
death was avenged in the invasion and subsequent conquest of Italy by Belisarius. Rome 
was thrice taken by the Eastern Romans, twice reconquered by the Goths. Vitiges was 
deposed, Totila and Teias slain, and the Gothic kings of Italy were succeeded by the Greek 
exarchs of Ravenna. 

After the extermination of the Gepidse, the Huns founded a kingdom near the Danube, 
while the Lombards proceeded to the conquest of Italy. Thirty Lombard dukes formed a 
feudal aristocracy. The laws of King Rotharis were the most civilized of the barbarian 
codes. 



* Six codes of laws were in force among the Lombards : the Roman, Gothic, Salian, 
Ripuarian, Alemannic, and the Lombard of King Rotharis. Any man, when summoned 
into court, might declare by which code he lived and desired to be judged : but unless he 
could prove himself a member of a Teutonic tribe, the Roman law prevailed. The barba- 
rian codes were all based upon the immemorial usages of the German race ; but assuming 
their permanent form after the respective nations were Christianized, they were largely 
modified by the precepts of the Old and New Testaments. 



THE EMPIRE. 25 



THE EMPIRE. 



24. Under the Eoman name and forms, the empire at Constantinople 
maintained the splendor without the power of its great founder. After 
the death of Arcadius, A. D. 408, it was governed first by the minister 
Anthe^mius, then, during the long minority and after the death of Theo- 
dosius II., by his sister Pulcheria, whose able and peaceful reign continued 
forty years. Her husband, Marcian (A. D. 453-457), was succeeded in 
turn by Leo the Thracian, Zeno, Anastasius, and Justin ; but the fifty 
years of their successive reigns present nothing worthy of our notice. 

The last-named emperor was a Bulgarian peasant, raised to the throne 
by reason of his soldierly virtues. The reign of his nephew, • 

Justinian, was long and- eventful. Its first five years were 
absorbed in a costly and unprofitable war with Persia, terminated by what 
was fondly called the " Endless Peace." At the close of this war, Constan- 
tinople was convulsed by a sedition, which, breaking out between the blue 
and the green factions in the hippodrome, came near to lay the whole city 
in ashes and to revolutionize the empire. A nephew of Anastasius was 
proclaimed ; 30,000 persons were slain in the tumult ; but at length, 
through the firmness of the Empress Theodora, and the energy of Belisa- 
rius, the imperial party was triumphant. To punish the mob, the games 
of the hippodrome were suppressed during several years. 

25. In the year following the sedition, Belisarius conquered the Vandal 
kingdom in Africa, more than a century from its foundation by Genseric 
(A. D. 429-533). Gelimer, the captive king, and a long train of nobles, 
adorned the victor's triumph, which was the first ever celebrated in the 
city of Constantine. Sardinia, Corsica, and the smaller islands of the 
western Mediterranean became subject to the exarchs of Africa. The 
Italian Goths rejoiced in the overthrow of the Vandals, who had injured 
them in the person of Amalafrida, sister of Theodoric the Great, and wife 
of Thrasimond, the Vandal king. The conquest of Africa was, however, 
soon followed by that of the Gothic kingdom, which has been described 
in ?§ 17-20. 

26. During the same year with the capture of Ravenna by Belisarius, 
a vast horde of Bulgarians swept over the Grecian peninsula, destroying 
thirty-two cities, and dragging away 120,000 captives. Another horde 
crossed the Hellespont and ravaged Asia. Twenty years later, the Danube 
being /rozen, a multitude of Bulgarians and Slavonians overran Thrace, 
and encamped almost within sight of Constantinople. In 

■the panic which filled the court and the capital, the aged 
Belisarius was called from his well-earned repose to assume command. 
By a swift and decisive movement of his forces, he again saved the empire. 
But the conqueror of two kingdoms, the defender of the throne against 



26 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

both Persians and barbarians, the faithful servant of an ungrateful and 
jealous sovereign, was now too popular to be secure. The shouts of joy 
and gratitude which welcomed his return to Constantinople, awakened 
the suspicions of Justinian. Three years later, Belisarius was thrown into 
a dungeon on a false charge of treason ; his possessions were confiscated, 
and though he was restored to the light a few months before his death, 
this event was hastened by the harshness with which he had been 
treated. 

27. During the reign of Justinian the culture of silk was introduced 
into Greece, the eggs of the silkworm concealed in a hollow cane having 
been secretly brought from China by two Persian monks. The production 
and manufacture of this curious material were eventually extended to 
Sicily, whence they spread into Spain, Italy, and France, and gave em- 
ployment to many thousands of people. 

^ The reign of Justinian was still more distinguished by the number and 
grandeur of his public buildings, among which the metropolitan church 
of Santa Sophia — esteemed by the emi^eror as rivaling the glories of Sol- 
omon's Temple — was the chief More substantial monuments of the 
period are found in the multiplied fortifications, which, hoVever, revealed 
the weakness rather than the strength of the empire. The Danube was 
guarded by more than eighty fortresses. Long walls protected the 
friendly Goths of the Crimea from their northern neighbors; and the 
" rampart of Gog and Magog," built from the Black to the Caspian Sea, 
at the joint expense of the Persian king and the emperor,- served to pro- 
tect the dominions of both from the barbarous hordes which overswept 
southern Russia. Beyond the Euphrates, the three fortresses of Amida, 
Edessa, and Dara defended the Persian frontier. 

28. Justinian suppressed the schools of Athens, and abolished the con- 
sulship, which, from an august dignity, had descended into a mere useless 
and expensive show. The chief glory of his reign is derived from the 
Code, the Pandects, and the Institutes, which, compiled under his direc- 
tion by the ablest lawyers of his time, form the foundation of civil law 
for all the European nations. The Institutes contained the elementary 
principles of law; the Code was a condensed and revised edition of the 
enactments of all the emperors since Hadrian ; the Pandects were a digest 
of precedents and decisions of the wisest judges, which had been accu- 
mulating a thousand years since the preparation of the Twelve Tables, 
and now filled thousands of volumes, "which no fortune could purchase 
and no capacity could comprehend." To extend the advantages of the 
new system, law-schools were founded or newly endowed at Eome, Con- 
stantinople, and Beirut. 

29. The later years of Justinian were marked by fresh and formidable 
movements among the northern nations. The Turks, a tribe of iron- 



THE EMPIRE. 27 

forgers from the Altai, issued from their mountains and established a new 
empire in Tartary. They subdued the Huns or Avars on the Til. A 
remnant of the conquered people fled to the Caucasus, where, hearing 
of the Greek empire, they resolved to claim its protection and enlist in 
its service. Justinian received them with liberality, and encouraged 
them to invade the Bulgarian and Slavonian territories. Within ten 
years they destroyed many tribes, imposed tribute and service on the 
rest, and extended their camps to the Elbe. Though Justinian afterward 
renounced their friendship for the more powerful alliance of the Turks, 
they were able, in the reign of his successor, to conquer the present terri- 
tories of Hungary and European Turkey, and establish the kingdom of 
their "Chagans" which lasted two hundred and thirty years. (See 
II 21, 54.) 

30. Justin II. resigned his crown, A. D. 574, in favor of Tiberius, 
captain of his guards. Eight years later, this emperor was succeeded by 
Maurice, who, unable to deliver Italy from the Lombards at the request 
of the Pope, invited the Franks to be his substitutes. Childebert, grand- 
son of Clovis, was the last of the Merovingians who crossed the Alps. 
Defeated in two expeditions, he was more successful in a third; but for 
want of support from the Greeks, he made no permanent conquests. 
A sedition arising in the Eastern army, Phocas was declared . ^ „„„ 

A. D. 602. 

emperor, and Maurice, with his five sons, was murdered at 
Chalcedon. Heraclius, exarch of Africa, refused tribute to the usurper, 
and sent his son with a fleet to Constantinople. Phocas was dragged 
from his palace and beheaded, and Heraclius the Younger was crowned. 

31. Chosroes II., now king of Persia, took advantage of the first revo- 
lution to invade the empire and subjugate all Syria, Egypt, and Africa 
as far as Tripoli ; while another Persian army, advancing to the Bosporus, 
took Chalcedon, and maintained its camp ten years in sight of Constanti- 
nople. Heraclius, whose empire was thus suddenly reduced to a few 
maritime districts, conveyed his army by sea to the borders of Syria 
and Cilicia, and on the very spot where Alexander of Macedon had, 
nearly a thousand years before, * defeated the ancestor of Chosroes, 
gained a decisive victory over the Persian host. In a second expedition 
he penetrated to the heart of Persia, and forced Chosroes to recall his 
armies from the Nile and the Bosporus ; in a third, by a battle fought 
above the buried ruins of Nineveh, he destroyed a great part of the 
Persian forces, A. D. 627. The glory of the Sassanidse died with Chosroes. 



* Battle of Issus, B. C. 333. Hallam well remarks : " That prince may be said to have 
stood on the verge of both hemispheres of time, whose youth was crowned with the last 
victories over the successors of Artaxerxes, and whose age was clouded by the first calami- 
ties of Mohammedan invasion." 



28 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

He was murdered by his son, and the Second Persian Empire fell into a 
confusion only ended by the Mohammedan conquest. 

32. The Eastern Roman Empire, exhausted by the extraordinary efforts 
of Heraclius, fell in his old age into a rapid decline. The Saracens seized 
the provinces which he had rescued from the Persians, and the boundaries 
of the empire were gradually narrowed until they included only Constan- 
tinople and its suburbs. Of the two sons of Heraclius, who received the 
title of Augustus during his life, the elder, Constantine III., only survived 
his father a few months, and the younger, Heracleonas, was deposed by 

the Senate. Constans II. came to the throne; but having, 

A. D. 641-668. ' *' 

a few years later, ordered the death of his brother Theodo- 
sius, he was overwhelmed with remorse and went into voluntary exile. 
He was murdered in Sicily by a slave. Constantine IV., his son, shared 
with his two bi'others the name, but kept for himself the substance of 
imperial power. 

33. Justinian II. (A. D. 685-711) outraged the people by the rapacity 
and cruelty of his ministers, and was driven into exile among the Tartars, 
while Leontius and Absimar successively occupied the throne. He re- 
turned after ten years to execute a barbarous revenge. Ravenna was 
plundered and its chief citizens massacred, and an army was sent to 
destroy the free city of Cherson, in the Crimea. These distant cities, 
whose wealth attracted the avarice of Justinian, were the principal 
emporia of the trade between India and Europe, and to the great com- 
mercial importance of their situations was owing their recovery from so 
great a calamity. But the last act had filled the measure of the emperor's 
iniquities. Exiles from many provinces assembled in the Crimea, and 
proclaiming a new emperor, sailed for Constantinople, where Justinian 
and his son were put to a sudden and violent death. With them ended 
the race of Heraclius, which had ruled the Eastern world a hundred 
years. 

34. The six years between the fall of the Heraclian and the rise of the 
Isaurian dynasty were filled by the three reigns of Philippicus, Anastasius 

II., and Theodosius III. Leo III., the Isaurian, then raised 
A. D. 717-741. ' ' ' 

himself from the army to the throne, and by his great abili- 
ties arrested the tendencies to decline, earning the title of Second Founder 
of the Eastern Empire. The name Byzantine, which modern historians 
apply . to the reformed empire, dates properly from his reign. Though 
Greek was henceforth the language of the court, the church, and the 
people, yet the control of the government was usually in the hands of 
Asiatics — particularly Armenians, who filled the highest military com- 
mands. The artisans and middle class were commonly Greek ; the lowest 
orders, including porters and day-laborers, were Slavonian. 

35. Leo's defense of Constantinople against the flower of the Moslem 



THE SAB AC ENS. 29 

force (A. D. 716-718) was one of the most brilliant exploits of that war- 
like age, and formed a turning-point in the relations of the Eastern em- 
perors with the caliphs. What his arms had saved from destruction, his 
.wise government continued to consolidate and protect. The highest moral 
and material civilization of their time was found in the dominions of Leo 
and his successors. The unchangeable regularity of Eoman law main- 
tained that social security which is the vital breath of commerce; and 
the prosperity of the trading class, as well as a great increase of free 
labor upon the soil, contributed in turn to the stability of the reorganized 
emjiire. 

36. An attempted religious reform led to the war of Iconoclasm, which 
for one hundred and twenty years agitated Christendom, and was a chief 
cause of the reestablishment of the Western Empire. The use, and by 
degrees the worship, of images and pictures, had crept into the Christian 
Church, especially in the great cities where wealth and luxury encouraged 
art. The taunts of the Jews and Arabs were, however, echoed by the 
more simple and severe of the Christian sects, who heard with horror the 
charge of idolatry applied to the usages of the metropolitan churches. 
Leo III. had imbibed among his native mountains a hatred of images 
which made him the first of the Iconoclasts. The details of the con- 
troversy belong, however, to the ensuing period; for the great power 
which, issuing from the sandy deserts of Arabia, threatened, to all human 
view, to overwhelm Christianity itself, must for the moment take prece- 
dence of the strife which divided the Christian nations. 

E,EC-A.I^ITTJIjJ5i.TI03sr. 

The Eastern empire kept its name and forms 1058 years after its separation from the 
Western. Under Justinian, the great general Belisarius gained important victories over 
the Persians, subdued the Nika sedition in the capital, conquered the Vandals in Africa and 
the Goths in Italy, and repeatedly put to rout barbarian invaders of the empire. Keign of 
Justinian was commemorated by many buildings and fortifications, but still more by his 
great works of jurisprudence, which still form the basis of the civil law of Europe. The 
Turks at this period first appear in history, driving the Huns into Europe, and fixing their 
own empire in Tartary. The emperors Justin II., Tiberius, Maurice, and Phocas preceded 
the rise of the Heraclian dynasty, which ruled the empire A. D. 610-711. Heraclius I. 
drove back the armies of Chosroes II., who had extended the Persian dominion nearly 
to its ancient western limits. From this point the Persian empire fell, and the Greek 
rapidly declined, until Leo the Isaurian, by a complete reorganization, gave it new vigor. 
He began the war against images, which ultimately destroyed the Byzantine power in 
Italy. 

THE SAEACENS. 

37. Mohammed, the camel-driver of Mecca, in his journeys to the 
Syrian fairs, met travelers of all nations and religions. The Christian 
Church was at that time rent by schism and weakened by luxury ; the 



30 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

Jews had to a great degree lost their religious character in that of 
traders; the Persians were worshipers of fire; the Arabians still adored 
the sun, moon, and stars. Mohammed conceived the grand idea of raising 
upon the ruins of all these creeds the worship of One God, of whom he 
aspired to be considered the prophet and apostle. How much of his 
extraordinary career must be ascribed to sincere though fanatical enthu- 
siasm, and how much to selfish ambition and willful deceit, can probably 
never be decided. 

38. Three years were spent in privately winning fourteen converts, 
before Mohammed publicly claimed the office of a prophet; and he dwelt 
ten years more within the walls of Mecca, preaching to a slowly increas- 
ing congregation concerning his own mission, the sinfulness of idolatry, 
and the unity of God. The tribe of Koreish, to which he belonged, were 
incensed at his pretensions, and vowed neither to eat nor drink until they 
had slain the self-appointed prophet. Mohammed fled with his friend 
Abu Beker to Medina, where he had already a powerful party ; and this 
Hegira, or Flight, A. D. 622, is the era from which Mussulmans still date 
their lunar year of 354 days. 

39. Within seven years all Arabia submitted to Mohammed ; and in the 
same year with the conquest of Mecca, A. D. 630, his forces first came into 
collision with those of the Eastern Empire, at Muta, near Damascus. The 
Prophet now opened to his followers a career of conquest, in which re- 
ligious zeal sharpened and sustained their military valor. Its motives may 
be found in the Koran. * " The sword is the key of heaven and of hell. 
A drop of blood shed in the cause of God, a night spent in arms, is of 
more avail than two months of fasting and prayer. Whoever falls in 
battle, his sins are forgiven." The Moslems were assured that no man 
can die until the moment appointed him by Fate; at that moment he 
would fall dead in his house or expire in his bed; until its arrival he 
is safe under the darts of the enemy. Under such a system no peril 
can be feared or avoided ; and the soldiers of Islam have been distin- 
guished a thousand years for their reckless and dauntless bravery. 

40. Within a hundred years, under the "caliphs," or successors of 
Mohammed, the Saracen empire had extended from the boundaries of 
India to the Atlantic, and embraced Persia, Syria, Egypt, Northern 

Africa, and Spain. Even Scythian shepherds burned their 

idols at the command of the Prophet. Alexandria, then 

the greatest commercial city in the world, was taken by a siege, bravely 



* Mohammed claimed to have received from the archangel Gabriel a volume bound in 
silk and gems, written with a finger of light, and containing the Divine Decrees. He made 
known its contents only in successive fragments, which were written out by his disciples, 
on palm-leaves or on the shoulder-bones of sheep, to be distributed among the faithful. 
After his death they were collected and published by his successor, Abu Beker. 



THE SARACENS. 31 

resisted for fourteen months. Twice during the next four years it was 
reconquered by the forces of the empire, but twice recaptured by Amrou, 
the Mohammedan general. More enlightened than his brethren of that 
period, Amrou would willingly have spared the Library, which since the 
days of Ptolemy Philadelphus — though partly burned during the visit 
of Caesar — had been the glory of the Egyptian capital. But the caliph 
Omar interposed, with the narrow bigotry peculiar to ignorance. " If 
these writings of the Greeks," said he, " agree with the Koran, they are 
useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree, they are pernicious, 
and ought to be destroyed." The inestimable manuscripts were dis- 
tributed for kindling among the 4,000 baths of the city; and such was 
their multitude that six months were required for their consumption. 

41. Constantinople was twice besieged, once for seven years (A. D. 668- 
675), and again for thirteen months (see | 35), by the Moslem hosts. It 
was only saved by Greek Fire, a compound of naphtha, sulphur, and pitch, 
which was either poured in death-dealing torrents over the ramj)arts, pro- 
jected in red-hot balls, arrows, and javelins, or blown through tubes from 
the front and sides of ships, which thus assumed the appearance of fire- 
breathing monsters. It exploded with great noise, heavy smoke, and a 
fierce, almost inextinguishable flame. Ignorance increased the terror of its 
victims. The secret of its composition was said to have been revealed by 
an angel to Constantine the Great, and it was closely kept more than four 
centuries by the Greeks. 

42. At the western extremity of the ancient empire, the Saracens gained 
a more sudden and easy victory. Count Julian, a Spaniard who com- 
manded the African fortress of Ceuta, had been injured by his sovereign, 
Eoderick, who has sometimes been called the Last of the Goths. Unable 
to revenge himself by his own arms, the faithless chief betrayed his trust, 
and led a Moslem host into the heart of Spain. This advanced guard 

ravaged the beautiful province of Andalusia, and the next 

° ^ ' A. D. 711. 

year a still larger army of Arabs and Moors crossed the 

strait. In a seven days' battle near Cadiz, the strength of the Gothic 

kingdom was broken. Roderick was drowned in the Guadalete, and in a 

few months the Saracens had overrun the peninsula from Gibraltar to the 

Bay of Biscay. A few brave Goths retired with their prince, Pelayo, to the 

mountains of Asturias, and became the founders of the modern kingdom of 

Spain. 

43. Musa, the Saracen emir, jealous of Tarik, his victorious lieutenant, 
followed with yet greater forces, occupied all the principal cities, and 
made Cordova the seat of a kingdom which lasted in Spain nearly eight 
hundred years. Colonies of Moslems from Syria and Arabia flocked into 
the conquered country, and Spain became as completely Arab as it had 
before been Gothic, Roman, or Phoenician. Successive troops of invaders 



32 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

crossed the Pyrenees, and reduced all south-western France between the 
Garonne and the "Rhone to the obedience of the Prophet. Tlie new do- 
minion which was ultimately to overthrow the Eastern empire, thus came 
face to face with that which was already rising upon the ruins of the 
Western. 

44:. The Merovingian monarchy was distracted between the weakness 
of the king and the strength of the nobles. Southern Gaul had never 
been thoroughly subdued by the Franks. Many territorial lords aimed to 
make themselves independent, and one of them, Eudes of Aquitaine, had 
even assumed the title of king. He defeated the Mussulmans in some 
of their earlier incursions ; but returning in greater force, under Abderrah- 
man, their ablest and most experienced general, they had now fixed their 
capital at Narbonne, while their cavalry overran the country as far as 
Lyons and BesanQon, marking their progress with the smoking ruins 
of once flourishing towns. 

It was their purpose, after conquering France and Germany, to follow 
the Danube to its mouth, overturn the Greek empire, and thus surround 
the Mediterranean Sea with one great Moslem dominion. To this end 
troops were collected from Syria, Egypt, and the Barbary states, as well 
as from Spain ; while Charles Martel, son and successor of Pepin d'Heristal 
as Mayor of the Austrasian Franks, drew to his standard all the Teutonic 
tribes from the forests of Germany and the marshes of the North Sea. 

45. Near the center of France, between Tours and Poitiers, the two 
hosts of Europe and Asia, Germans and Arabs, stood seven days confront- 
ing each other, only partial skirmishes foretokening the great battle which 

was to decide whether modern Europe should be Moham- 
A. D. 732. ^ 

medan or Christian. At length the Saracen horsemen 

spurred against the German spears, which stood " like a wall of iron, 

a rampart of ice," to receive them. The combat lasted all day, and was 

renewed the next morning with unremitting fury ; but at length the Arabs 

gave way; Abderrahman was slain; the other generals quarreled among 

themselves, and each sought his own safety by a separate and silent flight. 

Their deserted camp was found filled with the wealth of the East and the 

spoils of France. Charles with his Germans had gained one of the most 

complete and decisive battles in the world's history. Though retaining for 

twenty years their foothold in Septimania, the Saracens made no more 

serious attempts at conquest north of the Pyrenees. 

46. The Empire of the Caliphs, soon divided in itself, was indeed 

unable to avenge its defeat. The house of Ommiyah, which had ruled 

ninety years, was overthrown, and the Abbassides, descend- 
A.D, 661-750. J J J ' ch- 

ants of the uncle of Mohammed, rose into power. Spain, 

however, revolted, A. D. 755, in favor of the last of the Ommiades — a 

youth named Abdalrahman, who, by a wonderful series of adventures, 



9 "W. of Greenivicli 6 




THE CARLOVINGIANS. 33 

escaped the massacre which overwhelmed his family, and lived to estab- 
lish an independent kingdom at Cordova. This kingdom, itself too weak 
to disturb the repose of Christian Europe, was a rampart against Saracen 
invasion on the side of Spain. The descendants of Ali, cousin and first 
convert of Mohammed, reigned at the same time in Persia and Mauri- 
tania; and the three dynasties — the Abbassides of Bagdad, the Ommiades 
and the Fatimites* — became the heads, respectively, of the black, the 
white, and the green factions, into which the Moslem empire was no?; 
permanently divided. 

The Saracen Empire had its rise in fanaticism, and was extended by the sword, the Flight 
of Mohammed from. Mecca to Medina being the era of its chronology. His successors 
reigned from the Indus to the Atlantic. Their conquest of Spain was aided by the treachery 
of Count Julian ; but their progress in France was checked by the victory of Charles Martel, 
near Tours. Their empire was soon divided, the Abbassides obtaining the caliphate in 
Asia, the Ommiades in Spain, the Fatimites in Persia, Egypt, and northern Africa. 



Period II. From the Battle of Tours to the Battle of 
FONTENAYE, A. D. 732-841. 

47. The tide of Saracen invasion having rolled back, two powers are 
seen arising in the West, whose varying relations with each other form 
the framework of Mediaeval History. One is the restored Empire; the 
other, the temporal sovereignty of the poj^es. 

48. While the exarchs of Eavenna were losing power in Italy, the 
"bishops of Rome were often the only protectors of their people against 
barbarian incursions. The neglected duties and forfeited honors of the 
temporal rulers fell to them ; and while still professing themselves the 
obedient subjects of the emperors, they began to be regarded as not only 
the spiritual but the civil heads of society. The war of the Iconoclasts 
completed the separation thus begun between Italy and the 

empire. Casting off the shadow of imperial authority, Rome 
resumed the form of a republic, the bishop being the chief magistrate or 
prince of the city. Two successive popes, Gregory II. and III., excom- 
municated the agents who were charged with the destruction of the 
images. 

The emperor sent forces to plunder Rome and arrest the latter pope. 



So called from Fatima, the favorite daughter of Mohammed and the wife of Ali. 
M. H.— 3. 



34 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

His fleet was defeated and destroyed off Ravenna, but the Lombards 
seizing the opportunity, besieged the papal city. Gregory III. appealed 
to the great mayor, Charles Martel — who had now extended his power 
throughout France by the conquest of Burgundy, Provence, and Aqui- 
taine — offering him the titles of Patrician and Consul, and hinting 
that Rome was ready to revive the empire of the West in the person 
of its most powerful sovereign. Before the desired aid could be ren- 
dered, the pope, the emperor, and the mayor all died within one year, 
A. D. 741. 

49. Pepin the Short, son of Charles, with the approbation of Pope 
Zacharias, exchanged his inadequate title of Mayor of the Palace for 
that of King of the Franks. Astolphus, king of the Lombards, had 
now seized Ravenna, put an end to the exarchate, 185 years from its 
foundation by Narses, and was threatening Rome. Pope Stephen II. 
crossed the Alps to implore the aid of Pepin, who the next spring led 
a powerful army into Italy, besieged Pavia, and extorted from Astolphus 
a promise to cede all the cities of the exarchate to the pope. As soon 
as the Franks had retired, the promise was forgotten. Astolphus ravaged 
the environs of Rome, and demanded the surrender of the chief pontiff 
himself. 

With redoubled energy Pepin recrossed the Alps, and chastised the 
Lombard so severely that he was glad to buy peace with 
a third part of his treasures and the keys of twenty-two 
towns, which were laid upon the altar of St. Peter. The sovereignty 
of these towns remained to the victor, but their rich revenues, with the 
feudal control of multitudes of vassals, went to the pope, who thus be- 
came the most powerful baron of Rome. The authority of the exarchs 
in the imperial city was transferred to the Carlovingian king, with the 
title of "Patrician." In his name money was coined, justice adminis- 
tered ; and even the choice and consecration of the popes was subject to 
his supervision. 

50. Since their overthrow by Charles Martel, the Arabs had kept 
possession of the province of Septimania ; and by their superior skill in 
fortification, defended their capital, Narbonne, during a seven years' 
siege. It was surrendered at last, A. D. 750, by the treachery of some 
Goths within the walls, and the whole province was added to the do- 
minion of Pepin. The great duchy of Aquitaine, comprising a fourth 
part of France, had cast off its allegiance to the Carlovingians, but it 
was reconquered in a long and obstinate war of ten campaigns. In the 
year of its surrender Pepin died, leaving to his two sons, Charles and 
Carloman, a well-compacted dominion reaching from the Rhine to the 
Pyrenees. Carloman survived his father only three years. The power 
of the family was raised to its highest degree by his brother, whose name 



THE GABLOVINGIANS. 35 

and honorary title have become inseparable in history as Charle- 
magne. * 

51. The heathen Saxons — only exasperated when not converted by the 
preaching of St. Boniface — had broken out into renewed rage during the 
long wars of Pepin in Aquitaine. By thirty-three years of almost unre- 
mitted warfare, Charlemagne subdued or scattered this fierce but freedom- 
loving p&ople. Many times the humbled warriors sued for peace, and 
assumed the white robes of Christian converts, only to renew their ravages 
as soon as the Frankish chief was engaged in Spain or Italy. Many times 
his avenging armies desolated the Saxon country with fire and sword, on 
one occasion slaughtering 4,500 captives ; on others, transporting thousands 
to settlements in France or Italy, and supplying their places with colonies 
of Franks. 

Many bishoprics were established, not less as military posts than as 
centers of religious influence ; while, faithful to his great plan for Chris- 
tianizing all Europe, Charlemagne caused his Saxon hostages and prisoners 
to be diligently instructed in the true faith, that they might become the 
teachers of their people. In one, at least, of his forays, Charlemagne 
came in collision with the Northmen of the Baltic, who, though defeated 
in this first assault, became a most formidable scourge to the dominions 
of his descendants. The duchy of Bavaria, after existing two hundred 
years under one race, was absorbed into the dominion of the Franks. 

52. In the mean time, Charlemagne made good his inherited title of 
Eldest Son of the Church, by crossing Mt. Cenis to the aid of Pope 
Adrian I. against Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Pavia was reduced 
by fifteen months' siege; Desiderius and his family were imprisoned for 
the remainder of their lives, and Charlemagne himself received the Iron 
Crown, the native dukes and counts being confirmed, as his vassals, in 
the possession of their estates. Within two years they conspired with 
the Greek emperor to crown the son of Desiderius. Charlemagne crossed 
the Alps in the depth of winter, took several cities by storm or siege, 
and effectually crushed the conspiracy, leaving his faithful Franks in all 
places of trust, instead of the Lombard nobles. 

53. At the request of the emir of Saragossa, who besought his aid 
against the caliph of Cordova, Charlemagne invaded Spain, captured 



* It may be said, once for all, that this Manual admits the common French names 
of the Frankish sovereigns only for the sake of uniformity, in obedience to a custom 
too long established to be easily changed. In strict accuracy, Clovis should have been 
written Hlodwig or Chlodwig (the original of Louis); Charlemagne is Karl the Great; 
Eudes is more properly Odo. The student can not too carefully bear in mind that both 
Merovingian and Carlovingian sovereigns were Germans, and were always regarded as 
foreigners by the Gauls and Romans whom they governed. The foundation of the 
modern French monarchy dates from the accession of Hugh Capet. See ? 85. 



36 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

many cities, restored the emir, delivered the Gothic Christians from 
oppression, and extended his own dominion from the Pyrenees to the 
Ebro. Eesiding at Barcelona, the Frankish governor of the "Spanish 
March" held sway over Roussillon, Catalonia, and the infant kingdoms 
of Aragon and Navarre. 

54. Italy and Aquitaine were erected into separate kingdoms for two 
sons of Charlemagne ; and while he himself was conquering the tract be- 
tween the Elbe and the Oder, the young king of Italy added to his 
dominion the provinces of Istria and Liburnia, on the Adriatic. Between 
the father and son lay the dense thickets of Pannonia, where the Huns 
had laid up in nine enormous " Rings," fortiiied by impenetrable hedges, 
the plunder of Europe and Asia since the time of Attila. During recent 
wars of Charlemagne, they had dared to extend their forays into Italy and 
Bavaria; and in a Diet held at Worms, A. D. 791, they were doomed to 
a signal revenge. Two armies entered Pannonia from the north and 
south, while a fleet descended the Danube. In one campaign the Huns 
were humbled and despoiled; and five years later the country, with its 
buried treasures, was added to the empire of the Franks. The defense 
of the long eastern frontier, from the Adriatic to the Baltic, was com- 
mitted to noblemen called Margraves or Counts of the Border. 

55. As Patrician of Rome, Charlemagne was called to protect Pope 

Leo III. against the assaults of his enemies within the 

A. D. 800. ^ 

city. He went to Rome, heard the accusations, and ac- 
cepted the solemn oath of Leo as proof of his innocence. As he was 
offering his devotions on Christmas Day in the Church of St. Peter, the 
Pope suddenly placed upon his head a golden crown, hailing him at the 
same time with the ancient imperial titles: "Long life and victory to 
Charles Augustus, crowned of God, great and peace-giving Emperor 
of the Romans!" Clergy and people echoed the acclamation, and the 
king of the Franks was acknowledged as the successor of the Caesars. 

56. By the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, the Western empire had 
not been abolished, but only reunited with the Eastern; the exarchs 
represented imperial authority in Italy and Africa; and the proudest 
barbarian kings had their dignity increased by the patrician ornaments 
which marked them as lieutenants of the empire. But the throne of 
Constantinople was now usurped by Irene, a mere pretender, whose 
crime in supplanting her son, the lawful sovereign, neutralized her 
claims to allegiance. The supremacy which Rome had unwillingly re- 
linquished to the younger capital was held to be rightly resumed, and 
Charles was declared the successor of Constantine VI., as temporal head 
of Christendom. Disregarding the insignificant series of emperors who 
had followed Theodosius in the West, he was numbered as sixty-eighth 
in order through the Eastern line from Csesar Octavianus. 



THE CARLOVINGIANS. 37 

57. All the world hastened to recognize his greatness; Saxons of 
England and Goths of Spain sought his protection; and §veu from the 
banks of the Tigris, Haroun al Raschid sent, with other gifts, the keys 
of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher, acknowledging the Western em- 
peror as the official head of Christendom. During forty-six years of un- 
exampled activity, as king and emperor, Charlemagne labored for the 
union and civilization of Europe. Germany at his accession was little 
more than a heathen wilderness, possessing no towns except those upon 
the Rhine and Danube which had been colonies of the Romans. 

Under his vigorous administration, order and good government pro- 
duced their just effects. Many schools yet existing owe their origin to 
him; and towns grew up as centers not only of commerce, but of intel- 
ligence and Christianity. Diets to which bishops as well as nobles were 
summoned, took the place of the ancient March- and May-fields of the 
Frankish warriors. The discussions were in Latin, and this circumstance 
alone gave a commanding influence to the clergy. The Ca^ntularies of 
Charlemagne contain a great variety of general and special enactments, 
showing his minute attention to the details of government, and his 
sincere desire to guard the poor against the oppressions of the rich. 

58. His favorite capital, Aix-la-Chapelle, was adorned with the fine 
marbles and mosaics of Italy, the sculptures of Greece, and enriched by 
an extensive library, a richly endowed college, and a school of sacred 
music. The first organs were by his order brought from Greece into 
northern Europe, and singers from Italy introduced the Gregorian chant. 
Learned men from all countries * were his favorite companions ; and 
wherever his camp was pitched — on the ancient battle-fields of Italy 
and Spain, or amid the wilds of the Danube or the Baltic — their con- 
versation was his constant delight. The empire of the West, revived in 
Charlemagne, lasted 1,006 years, until it was subverted by Najioleon. Its 
titles, stripped of most of their significance, are retained by the sovereigns 
of Austria. 

59. Louis the Mild, though king of Aquitaine from his fourth year, 
and already associated in the imperial dignity before his father's death, 
was better fitted for a cloister than a throne. He reformed the court, 
sent commissioners throughout his realm to investigate and redress wrongs, 
raised the conquered Saxons to a level with his other subjects, repelled 
Norman invasions, and subdued revolts in Italy and other distant prov- 
inces. But in the necessary execution of the ringleaders of these revolts, 



* Alcuin, the English philosopher, was his most familiar friend. He had previously- 
been provost of the High School at York, in England, where was one of the few libra- 
ries then existing in Western Europe. Alcuin, at the request of Charlemagne, sent 
scholars to make copies of the books at York, as a foundation for the libraries which he 
attached to all the schools in Germany. 



38 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

his sensitive conscience became burdened with remorse. He voluntarily 
underwent a public penance; and his turbulent and unscrupulous nobles, 
instead of being moved to follow his example, saw with contempt, in 
the humbling of the imperial dignity, an opportunity to augment their 
own. The power which his father had bestowed upon the Church was 
ungenerously used against the son. 

60. As early as A. D. 817, Lothaire, the eldest son of Louis, was 
joined with his father in the empire, while his brothers, Louis and 
Pepin, received each an ample domain, with the title of king. Charles, 
the son of a second marriage, was afterward endowed with Switzerland 
and Suabia ; and although this gift did not infringe their territories, it 
was made a pretext to draw the three elder sons into repeated revolts 
against their father, who was twice deprived of his crown by the rebell- 
ious princes, aided by the bishops. 

At length the emperor, worn out by cares and sorrows, died upon a 
little island in the Rhine. His son Pepin had preceded him. Lothaire, 
according to the terms of his coronation, demanded the oath of allegiance 
from every subject of his father. He was supported by the Italians and 
the Austrasian Franks, who cherished the Roman idea of a united empire. 
His brothers, Louis and Charles, in claiming to hold their respective 
dominions in full sovereignty, were supported by the Germans, who had 
never been fully reconciled to the restored empire, and who insisted on 
referring the question of partition to the issue of battle, or, in the lan- 
guage of the times, to the' "judgment of God."* 

61. At Fontenay, near Auxerre, 300,000 men, representing nearly all 
the nations that had obeyed Charlemagne, met in unseemly strife, led 
by the three brothers. The battle was long, obstinate, and indecisive. 
At length Lothaire withdrew, leaving 40,000 of his soldiers dead upon 
the field. An equal number had fallen upon the other side. The flower 

of Prankish chivalry was destroyed, and the empire was 
left unprotected equally against the Scandinavian and 
Moorish pirates. By a subsequent treaty at Verdun, the dominions of 
Charlemagne were divided among his three grandsons. Italy, with a 
long strip of land extending from the Mediterranean to the German 
Ocean, between the Rhone and Meuse on the west, and the Alps and 
Rhine on the east, was assigned to Lothaire, that with the imperial 
crown he might also possess the two capitals, Rome and Aix; the coun- 



* "Trial by battle," either single or general, was a common mode of determining dis- 
putes during the Middle Ages, because it was believed tJiat Heaven would award the 
victory to the right, punishing a perjured man, or vindicating the innocence of one un- 
justly accused. Women and infirm old men, if accused of deadly crimes, were allowed 
to choose their champions ; but if the champion lost the battle, the man was hanged or 
the woman burnt. 



CONTEMPORARIES OF THE CARLOVINQIANS. 39 

tries east and north of the Rhine were given to Louis the German ; Gaul 
west of the Rhone and Saone, to Charles the Bald. 

62. Germany dates her national existence from the Treaty of Verdun. 
Eastern or Teutonic was then forever separated from "Western or Latin 
France, which in later times gained exclusive possession of the name, 
the heart of the Frankish dominions being known as Franconia. The 
oaths taken respectively by the armies of Louis and Charles show that 
the two languages were already distinct. The Frankish conquerors of 
Gaul were largely Latinized by intercourse with the former subjects of 
the Caesars ; and while the soldiers of Louis swore allegiance in Old 
German, the oath of Charles' army bore an almost equal resemblance to 
Latin, Provenqal, and modern French. The Teutonic and Roman ele- 
ments in European society and speech were from that moment separate. 

HEC^S^ITXJXi.A.mOlT- 

The Carlovingian power having been confirmed by the victory near Tours, was 
increased by Pepin, and raised to its greatest height by Charlemagne, only to decline 
under the just but inefiicient Louis, and to be permanently divided by his sons in tlie 
Battle of Fontenaye and the Treaty of Verdun. 

Simultaneous with its rise was that of the civil power of the popes. The war of 
Iconoclasm separated Italy from Byzantine rule, and led to the revival of the Western 
Empire in the person of Charlemagne. Both Pepin and Charlemagne made war in Italy 
against the Lombards ; the latter overthrew their kingdom and imprisoned its last native 
sovereign. The revenues of the exarchate — previously absorbed by the Lombards — went 
to the Pope, and its sovereignty to the Frankish king. Charlemagne subdued the Saxons ; 
annexed Bavaria, the March of Spain, and the territory of the Huns ; extended his do- 
minion from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, and from the Atlantic and Ebro on the 
west to the Elbe and Theiss on the east. He civilized*his German territories by Diets, 
in which the clergy had a voice, as well as by schools, libraries, and collections of art. 
By the Treaty of Verdun, the Germans east and north of the Rhine were separated from 
the Romanized Germans and the "Latin Race" on the west and south. 



CONTEMPORARIES OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

63. In the Saracen empire, the rude age of conquest was succeeded by 
a brilliant period of intellectual progress. Libraries and colleges sprang 
up in all the Moslem cities from Samarcand to Cordova, and the writ- 
ings of the Greek philosophers were translated into Arabic. Arabian 
physicians had no superiors in the knowledge of botany, chemistry, and 
anatomy, and to their skill were intrusted the lives of many Christian 
princes. All sciences in their infancy are mingled with superstition. 
The Arabs were encouraged in their study of astronomy by the belief 
that they read human destiny in the stars; and they wasted long lives 
and ample fortunes in the researches of alchemy, hoping to discover the 
elixir of immortal youth, or the philosopher's stone, which could trans- 
mute all substances into gold. 



40 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

64. Almansor, the second of the Abbassides, built Bagdad on the 
Tigris for his capital. Haroun al Easchid was the most magnificent 
and powerful monarch of his race ; but his excessive cruelty to the 
people of the Eastern empire, whose lands he ravaged, and his murder 
of the Barmecides, his own intimate friends and faithful servants, make 
us doubt whether his surname of "the Just" was deservedly bestowed. 
Almamun, his successor (A. D. 813-833), was equally remarkable for 
his liberal patronage of science and literature. Learned men of all 
nations were welcome at his court. An accurate measurement of the 
earth's orbit evinced a degree of mathematical knowledge not previously 
attained. 

It was during this reign that Crete was conquered by Arabian pirates, 
to continue nearly a century and a half their slave market, for the dis- 
posal of captives from all the shores of the Mediterranean. A rebellion 
against the Ommiad caliph of Spain had resulted in the exile of 15,000 
of the insurgents. These took refuge in Egypt, but being expelled by 
the lieutenants of Almamun, they sailed to Crete, and commenced its 
subjugation by building the fortress of Candia, which ultimately gave its 
name to the whole island. The greater part of Sicily was conquered 
about the same time, and its ports became nests of pirates, who pillaged 
the neighboring coasts of Italy, and even twice assaulted Eome itself. 
The churches were robbed of their gold and silver, but the city was 
rescued and fortified by the valiant Pope Leo IV. He rebuilt the sub- 
urban villages, and inclosed with walls the Vatican quarter of Rome, 
which is still called in his honor the Leonine City. 

65. The annals of the Byzantine empire during this period are full 
of important events. The war against images was begun, as we have 
seen, by Leo III. At his command the eastern churches abjured their 
idols, though not without tumult and bloodshed; his edict in the west 
was met with positive refusal by the popes, and a declared resolution by 
the people to "live and die in defense of the holy images." The son 
of Leo, Constantine V., wa:s for a time expelled from his throne by the 
image-worshipers, and upon his return he punished the rebellion by a 
still more bitter and violent persecution. His reign was otherwise pros- 
perous. The desolate shores of Thrace received new colonies ; thousands 
of captives were redeemed from foreign slavery, and unusual plenty pre- 
vailed. 

66. Leo IV. married Irene, an Athenian, whose remarkable talents raisec 
her to the head of the empire. As regent for her son, Constantine VI., 
she undertook with zeal the restoration of the images. The monks, their 
most zealous promoters, reappeared from their hiding-places, and a general 
Council at Nice, A. D. 787, reversed the decision of that of Constantino- 
ple, A. D. 754, by declaring image-worship to be agreeable to Scripture and 



CONTEMPORARIES OF THE CARLO VING JANS. 41 

reason. As Constantine grew to manhood, the mother and son became 
the heads of rival parties which alternately possessed the throne. Irene 
at length prevailed, caused her son to be deprived of his eyes, and 
reigned in splendor five years alone. Her ministers then conspired 
against her, and Nicephorus, the treasurer, obtained the crown. His 
fiscal talents and experience enabled him greatly to increase the reve- 
nues from taxation ; but excepting this kind of oppression, and in spite of 
his very bad reputation in history,'* few crimes seem to have been justly 
charged upon him. He was tolerant of religious difierences, and humane 
even to conspirators against his life. 

His relations with Charlemagne were at first friendly, though their 
claims to universal empire were, of course, mutually destructive. A 
treaty concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, A. D. 803, fixed the limits of the 
two empires in Italy. Venice, Istria, the Dalmatian coast, and the Cala- 
brian cities remained to the Byzantine sovereign, while Eome and the 
exarchate of Eavenna were resigned to the Frank. Nicephorus suffered 
a humiliating defeat from Haroun al Easchid, A. D. 805, and ultimately 
lost his life in war with the Bulgarians, A. D, 811. 

67. His son Stauracius had reigned but two months, when a new revo- 
lution compelled him to resign the throne to his brother-in-law, Michael 
Ehangabe. The mild virtues of Michael I. disgusted the army, and rather 
than preserve his crown by bloodshed, he retired into a monastery. 
Leo v., the Armenian, was saluted as emperor, and proved one of the 
best Byzantine sovereigns, though his accommodating policy concerning 
image-worship gave him the name of " Chameleon." During t^ qio qoa 

A., i). olo— 820. 

this reign the Bulgarian king, Crumn, repeatedly ravaged 
the country to the very walls of Constantinople, and carried off" in one 
expedition 50,000 captives. By the zeal and fidelity of these Christian 
slaves, many thousands of the Bulgarians were persuaded to accept 
Christianity. Nearly fifty years later their king Bogoris was baptized, 
and the entire nation soon renounced its paganism. 

68. Leo V. was slain in a conspiracy by the adherents of his old 
friend and comrade, Michael the Amorian, who for repeated treasons had 
been sentenced to death by fire. Michael II. was snatched from his 
dungeon to be placed upon the throne, with the iron fetters still upon 
his limbs. Under the Amorian dynasty, the empire, though in its de- 
cline, far surpassed all other nations in wealth, owing to the extent of 
its commerce. In the Mediterranean the Greeks had a monopoly ; and 
the trade between Europe and Asia has never been so concentrated in 



* His most unpopular act — especially with the chroniclers — was a tax upon church 
property, monasteries, and charitable institutions. The prevailing fashion of endowing 
convents, in order to withdraw property from taxation, and provide a retreat for a whole 
family in case of misfortune, had greatly impaired the public revenues. 



42 MEDIAEVAL IIIHTUBY. 

any one city as in Constantinople before the rise of tlae Italian republics. 
Central Asia was then more settled and civilized than now, since the 
ravages and conquests of the Tartar hordes. Rich cities rewarded the 
enterprise of merchants, whose caravans they entertained on the route to 
India or China. Throughout Europe and Asia, golden byzants were in 
circulation, furnishing for several centuries the only gold coinage on the 
former continent. 

(J9. Tlieophilus, the son and successor of Michael II., was an able and 
magnificent sovereign, but he had many misfortunes in his wars with 
the caliphs of Bagdad, and his great revenues were used in adorning his 
capital with gorgeous buildings, rather than in fortifying his borders. 
Theophilus was an ardent Iconoclast, but his widow, Theodora, as regent 
for her son, Michael III., finally restored the images, and put an end to 
a war which had distracted the empire more than a century. 

During the regency of Theodora and the reign of her son, the Pauli- 
cians — a heretical sect who professed themselves the obedient followers 
of St. Paul — were persecuted throughout the empire, and ten thousand 
persons are said to have been put to death under one commission. A 
greater number made ai"med i-esistance, and with the aid of the neigh- 
boring Saracen emirs, established themselves in an independent fortress 
at Tephrik^, and in the mountainous region surrounding it, in the modern 
province of Roura. The new republic, like that of Holland and the 
American colonies in later ages, became, during the twenty-five years of 
its existence, a refuge for the oppressed of every name. With the reign 
of Michael III., a drunken and dissolute tyrant, the power of his family 
ended, and a greater dynasty arose. 

70. The Gothic kingdom founded or preserved by Pelayo, in the north 
of Spain, was governe^l during this period by nine kings, most of whose 
annals are obscure. Alfonso the Catholic, A. D. 739-757, extended his 
dominion over one-fourth part of the peninsula, and established colonies 
of his Christian subjects in many places depopulated by his slaughter of 
the Arabs. The conquered lands were frequently lost and regained by 
his successors, and even when held were often under tribute to the 
Mohammedan sovereigns at Cordova. 

71. Among the many Anglo-Saxon monarchs of the time, the most 
important were Cuthred (A. D. 740-754), who laid the foundation of the 
future supremacy of Wessex ; OfFa, king of Mercia (A. D. 755-779), who 
reigned over twenty-three of the modern English counties ; and Egbert 
A. D. 827-836), who is still more distinguished as the first lord-para- 
mount of all England. Exiled by the jealousy of his kinsman, King 
Brihtric, of Wessex, Egbert spent his youth at the court or in the 
camp of Charlemagne. He accompanied that great sovereign in his 
rapid expeditions throughout Europe, and drew inspirations for his own 



CONTEMPORARIES OF THE CARLO VINGIAN8. 43 

subsequent reign from the enlightened and liberal policy of the founder 
of the new Western empire. 

The privations and hardships of the prince proved beneficial both to 
himself and to his country. By the superior military science which he 
learned in the wars of Charlemagne, as well as by his wisdom and moder- 
ation, he either conquered or rendered tributary all the other Anglo- 
Saxon kingdoms, and gained decisive victories over the Britons. The 
only foes who could w^ithstand him were the Danes, or Northmen, who 
were now infesting the coasts of Europe as the Saxons had done four 
centuries before. They once defeated the army of Egbert, but after their 
alliance witli the Britons of Cornwall, the united forces were routed with 
great slaughter. 

72. The countries on the Baltic, too sterile to support so numerous 
and active a race, sent forth the hardiest of their sons to a life of ad- 
venture, in which they had every thing to gain and nothing to lose; for 
no sovereign of the south cared to conquer the bare cliffs of Norway, the 
marshes and then impenetrable forests of Sweden, or the islands and 
peninsula inclosed in a tumultuous sea, which constituted Denmark. In 
addition to their usual ferocity, one class of Northmen cultivated a sort 
of brutal frenzy, in which they howled like wolves, gnashed their teeth 
like mad dogs, lashed themselves into a fury of superhuman strength, 
and then rushed, fearless of death, into scenes of atrocious slaughter, such 
as no sane mind even of a savage could endure. This "Berserker's rage" 
was in early times regarded with reverence, like the convulsions of in- 
spired priestesses among the Phrygians and Greeks; but with the dawn 
of civilization it fell into disrepute and even abhorrence. 

73. In the eighth century, Harald Harfagre, of Norway, united many 
petty sovereignties under his sway, and tried to clear his dominions of 
pirates. The nests being broken up, the marauders swarmed over Europe. 
Some, crossing the Scythian plains, reappeared upon the Hellespont, where 
the Byzantine sovereigns were glad to buy their services with liberal do- 
nations of gold ; and these " Varangians," or exiles, became to the Eastern 
empire in its decline what the Franks and Goths had been to that of 
the West. A few years later, two successive bands of North- 

•^ ' A. D. 862. 

men put an end to the Slavic kingdoms of Novgorod and 
Kiev, and thus laid the obscure foundation of the greatest empire of our 
own time. The Scandinavian conquerors, comparatively few in number, 
adopted the language of their subjects ; but Ruric, the chief, imposed the 
name of his own Eussian tribe upon the united nation. 

74. Ragnar Lodbrog, king of the Danish isles, was expelled his do- 
minions with the aid of the Franks. He retaliated by a raid upon 
France itself, sailed up the Seine to Paris, and plundered all the churches. 
Falling later into the hands of Ella, king of Deira, he was thrown into 



44 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

a dungeon and slain by the venom of innumerable serpents. Charle- 
magne had fortified the whole western border of his empire against the 
northern pirates, but while his grandchildren were destroying each other 
at Fontenay, these sea-robbers were left unchecked to ravage the coasts 
of Holland, France, and Spain. 

The Saracens became distinguished for learning and high civilization. Almansor bnilt 
Bagdad. Ilaroun al Raschid devastated the east, tliough he maintained friendly relations 
with the west. Arabian pirates conquered Crete and Sicily. Rome was only saved by Pope 
Leo IV. 

War of Iconoclasni begun by Emperor Leo III. ; continued by his son, Constantine V. 
Images restored by Irene, who supplanted her own son, but was in turn dethroned by 
Nicephorus I. Leo V. had long wars with tlie Bulgarians, who became Christianized 
through their intercourse with the empire. Great commercial prosperity under the Amo- 
rian dynasty. Theophilus renewed the war against images, but these were finally re- 
stored and the long contest ended by Theodora. 

Gothic kingdom extended by Alfonso the Catholic over one-fourth of Spain. In Eng- 
land, Egbert of Wessex united all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under his own sway. The 
ravages of Scandinavian free-booters were increased by the consolidation of their states 
under Ilarald Harfagre. Many entered the imperial service at Constantinople; others, 
under Ruric, foiuided the Rxissian empire at Novgorod, while still greater numbers de- 
vastated the western coasts of Europe. 



Period III. From the Division of Charlemagne's Dominions 
TO THE First Crusade, A. D. 843-1096. 

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

75. During the rapid decline of the Carlovingian family, the imperial 
crown passed during forty-five years from one to another of its three 
branches, which ' reigned in Italy until A. D. 888, in Germany until 
A. D. 911, in France until A. D. 987. No one of its members equaled 
their first imperial ancestor either in war or state-craft, or inherited his 
personal control over the princes and barons, whose estates covered almost 
the entire empire. Wherever special danger threatened, either from Mag- 
yars, Saracens, or Northmen, the burden of public defense fell upon local 
chieftains, who made war or peace on their own responsibility, and soon 
cast oif the authority of the royal commissioners appointed by Charle- 
magne. Thus, on the west, the dukes of Aquitaine and Brittany, the 
counts of Anjou and Paris ; on the east, the dukes of Saxony, Thuringia, 
Franconia, Bavaria, and Suabia ; in Italy, the marquises of Friuli, Ivrea, 
Spoleto, and Tuscany, enjoyed wealth and power superior in almost every 
instance to those of their nominal sovereigns ; and there was scarcely a 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 45 

city or castle in the whole empire which had not some other master than 
the king. 

76. Estates were held upon a condition of military service, known as the 
"feudal tenure." Each year the great vassal, kneeling, placed his hands 
between those of his suzerain, and vowed to serve him with life and limb, 
faithfully and loyally, in consideration of the lands conferred. Beneath 
the great princes who held provinces directly from the king, were " rear 
vassals," who did homage to the count or duke for some portion of his 
domains; and these again might grant estates to smaller tenants, the 
whole territory being subject to a condition of service in time of war, or, 
as it was called, " held in fief." Even the absolute owners of land were 
often glad to secure the protection of some powerful lord by acknowledging 
his suzerainty; and thus during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, 
feudal holdings took the place of " allodial possession " throughout France, 
Germany, and a great part of Italy. Originally, the feudal grants were 
made only for a term of years or during the life-time of the vassal, but 
they gradually became hereditary. Upon the extinction of the family, or 
its failure to fulfill the oath of homage, the estate reverted to the superior; 
if of a great vassal, to the king. 

77. The serfs who cultivated the soil were given away with it, and 
could claim nothing except protection for their families and cattle in time 
of invasion. So often was their humble industry broken up, not only by 
foreign inroads, but by the private wars of the nobles, that whole districts 
were sometimes depopulated by famine. The darkest period of the " Dark 
Ages " was comprised in the three centuries succeeding Charlemagne. The 
order and security restored by his great genius were replaced for a season 
by the wildest anarchy. " Fist-law " prevailed, and western Europe was 
more deeply sunk in ignorance and misery during the tenth and eleventh 
centuries than at any preceding period. 

78. The Church was at this time the only protector of the weak; 
bishops and abbots were important vassals of the empire, and a great 
increase of power and wealth gave them the dignity of independent 
princes. Abbey-lands, being usually secure from ravages, were better cul- 
tivated, and the serfs attached to them more prosperous than those of sec- 
ular estates. At length, in A, D. 1033, the French clergy were able to 
impose a check upon the private wars, which were a source of the greatest 
calamity to Europe. It was forbidden to engage in any warlike movement 
between sunset on Wednesday and sunrise on Monday of each week, or on 
any holy festival which might occur during the remaining days. This 
"truce of God," proclaimed as by direct revelation from Heaven, was ob- 
served throughout the countries which obeyed the Bishop of Rome. 

79. From this glance at the general condition of Europe under the 
Feudal System, we turn to mark the rise of the several dynasties and 



46 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

nations. The Middle-Kingdom of Lothaire (see § 61) soon fell, under his 
sons, into its three natural divisions: Italy, Burgundy, and Lorraine. 
Louis II. at his father's death added to the Italian crown that of the 
Roman empire, and waged valiant war against the Saracens in Calabria. 
The kingdom of Burgundy, then comprising the country between the 
Ehone and the Alps, and known afterward as the kingdom of Provence 
or of Aries, was first to throw oflP the Carlovingian yoke and set up a 
native sovereign in Count Boso, son-in-law of the emperor Louis II.. 
A. D. 877. 

80. Charles the Bald outlived his brothers, and for a year claimed the 
whole dominion of Charlemagne. He continued the policy begun by 
Lothaire, of settling the barbarian invaders upon the lands they had de- 
vastated, by giving to Robert the Strong, probably a Saxon chief, all the 
lands between the Loire and the Seine, with the title of Count of Anjou. 
The wisdom of the grant was shown in the able resistance of Count Robert 
to the bands of Northmen who had in this reign i)lundered Rouen, twice 
stormed and sacked Paris, and massacred so many thousands of people 
that the islets of the Seine were whitened with their bones. Robert lost 
his life in battle with Hasting the Viking ; but his son Eudes became the 
no less brave and able defender of Paris against a still more terrible 
assault. The siege lasted eighteen months. Charles III. (the Fat), who 

had once more united the dominions of Charlemagne, was 

A. D. 885, 886. . . ^ ' 

absent and neglectful of his imperial duties. When at last 
he arrived before the walls of Paris, it was only to ransom the city with 
money, and suffer the half-conquered enemy to pursue his ravages as far 
inland as Burgundy. 

81. Universal contempt for this conduct led to the deposition of Charles 
by a Diet of the empire at Tribur. His four kingdoms were divided. 
Germany chose for its king Arnulf, a grandson of Louis the German, who 
by defeating the Northmen at their fortified camp near Louvain, had 
already proved himself one of the most valiant of his race. The crown 
of Italy was bestowed upon Berengar of Friuli ; but that of the empire 
was received by Guy of Spoleto, and upon his death, three years later, 
by Lambert, his sou. Northern or Transjurane Burgundy became a sep- 
arate kingdom under Rudolf I., while in western France, Count Eudes 
was called by general acclamation to the throne. Four years later, a 
rival party which adhered to the Carlovingians, crowned Charles the 
Simple, the last surviving descendant of Charles the Bald, who reigned 
north of the Seine until the death of Eudes, A. D. 898, and afterward 
nominally over all the country from the ocean to the Rhone and Moselle. 

82. Western Europe still suffered from the ravages of the Danes. In 
England their piratical craft swarmed in all the rivers, while troops of 
corsairs scoured the country, pillaged York, London, and many other 



THE NORMANS. 47 

towns, and even forced Alfred, grandson of Egbert, to spend some months 
a homeless fugitive in his own realm, of which he was to become the civ- 
ilizer and benefactor. Alfred, however, mustered a force to defeat them at 
Ethandune, and afterward, in pursuance of his liberal and peaceful policy, 
ceded to Guthrum, their leader, upon his baptism, the seven eastern coun- 
ties north of the Thames in perpetual possession. 

83. In A. D. 912, Charles the Simple, too poor to bribe and too weak 
to resist them, likewise ceded to Hrolf, or Rollo, their Norman leader, in 
perpetual fief, a large region of north-western France, with the feudal sov- 
ereignty of the duchy of Bretagne, on condition of his followers embracing 
Christianity and ceasing from their depredations. On the French side of 
the Channel this expedient proved eflfectual, for the Normans, now settling 
to the cultivation of the soil, formed a barrier against future incursions of 
their countrymen ; and their jDrovince, which took from them the name of 
Normandy, became the richest and most orderly part of France. But in 
England, the Danes of the eastern border disclaimed all resiDonsibility for 
the acts of their countrymen, who (A. D. 1003-1013) expelled 

•^ ' ^ ^ ^ A. D. 1017-1041. 

Ethelred the Unready ten years from his realm ; and at length 

gaining sole possession of the kingdom, ruled it, under Knut and his two 

sons, Harold and Hardiknut, twenty-four years. 

84. In France,, the imbecility of Charles and the insolence of his low- 
born minister, Haganon, led to a war with the great vassals, by whom the 
king was defeated and imprisoned, with one brief exception, for the re- 
mainder of his life. Eobert, duke of France, brother of Count Eudes, and 
Rudolph of Burgundy successively obtained the crown. The wife of 
Charles, with her infant son Louis, took refuge in England at the court 
of her brother Athelstan. Upon the death of King Rudolph, A. D. 936, 
three great nobles united to recall the young prince, who on account of 
his exile is known to history as Louis d'Outremer. Having been carefully 
educated by his uncle, Louis displayed more spirit and ability than were 
common to his declining family. 

Hugh the Great, Duke of France and Burgundy and Count of Paris, 
had been chiefly influential in bestowing upon that prince a crown which 
he might as easily have obtained for himself. He resented the independent 
spirit of Louis, and at length, throwing off his allegiance, declared himself 
a vassal of Otho the Great, king of Germany. The duke of Normandy 
and other great feudatories followed his example. Otho invaded the 
country, and the French monarchy covered little more than the castle- 
rock of Laon, when, in A. D. 954, King Louis suddenly died. 

85. Hugh the Great had the crown a third time at his disposal, but he 
bestowed it upon Lothaire, the son of Louis, and himself died two years 
later, having for thirty-three years exercised more than royal power, 
though without its insignia. Lothaire was succeeded, A. D. 986, by Ms 



48 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

son, Louis V., with whom ended the Carlovingian line in France, 
Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, only brother of Lothaire, was rejected 
in consequence of his worthless character, and a gi-eat council of nobles 
elected Hugh, Count of Paris, and eldest son of Hugh the Great, to be 
their king. With his consecration at Rheims, July 1, 987, began the rule 
of that illustrious dynasty whijch continued in unbroken succession to 
govern France more than eight hundred years. Either from humility or 
superstition, the new king habitually wore an abbot's cap instead of a 
crown. To this circumstance he probably owes his surname Capet, which 
is also applied to his family. 

80. The accession of the count of Paris was a triumph of French nation- 
ality over what had always been more or less resented as the foreign rule 
of the Carlovingians. The relation of the king to the great nobles was 
merely that of precedence among equals ; and even this slight authority 
was sometimes disputed by the chiefs of the southern provinces, always 
jealous rivals of those of the north. The marriage of Robert the Pious, 
son and successor of Hugh, with a daughter of the Count of Toulouse, led 
to more intimate relations between the two parts of the kingdom ; and 
though the clergy bitterly denounced the gay dress and easy manners of 
the new courtiers, some advantage doubtless resulted from the infusion of 
southern intelligence and refinement — partly retained in the Mediterra- 
nean provinces since the Augustan age, and partly derived from the Sar- 
acens, who were then the most cultivated people in Europe. 

87. The munificeuce toward the Church, which distinguished both Hugh 
and Robert, doubtless contributed much to the establishment of their dy- 
nasty, but did not preserve the latter from a cruel persecution on account 
of his first marriage with his distant relative. Bertha. The kingdom was 
placed under an interdict, which was enforced with extreme severity, 
until the king, after several years' resistance, was compelled to yield. 

A singular delusion which prevailed during this reign still further in- 
creased the power of the clergy. A prophecy widely circulated in Europe 
foretold the end of the world one thousand years after the birth of Christ. 
As the time approached no seed was sown, nor any worldly business 
transacted. The terrified multitude thronged the churches, seeking by 
prayer and penance to avert the worst features of their doom. The rich 
and the great lavished their estates upon the monasteries ; and many, 
assuming the humble garb of penitents, hastened to the Holy Land, where 
it was believed that our Lord would appear in person. Famine and untold 
misery resulted from this extraordinary panic; and though industry was 
slowly resumed after the fiital year had jjassed, yet the feeling of depend- 
ence upon the Church for the security of interests dearer than life, re- 
mained unabated in the minds of all classes. 

88. The violent deeds which were characteristic of the time burdened 




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THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 49 

many consciences with remorse. The clergy taught that sin might be 
expiated by gifts to the Church, and thence arose the magnificent cathe- 
drals and abbeys which constitute the principal ornaments of Europe. 
Many princes, among whom were eight or ten Anglo-Saxon kings, ex- 
changed the cares and tumults of their regal state for the peace and seclu- 
sion of a monastery. A visit to the scenes of our Savior's life, teachings, 
and death was considered especially efficacious as an atonement for sin; 
and southern Europe was thronged with pilgrims, among whom the now 
Christianized Northmen were most numerous and zealous. 

89. Duke Robert the Magnificent, the fifth from Eollo, filled with 
remorse for his unscrupulous and wicked life, abandoned his duchy after 
securing the allegiance of his barons to his young son William, and ful- 
filled his presentiment by dying in Asia Minor during his return from 
Jerusalem. William, becoming of age, proved one of the ablest princes 
of his line. He was cousin to Edward the Confessor, the last Saxon king 
of the family of Egbert; and on the death of that sovereign, without 
children, he claimed the English crown. Harold, son of the powerful 
Earl Godwin, was, however, made king, and for nearly a year defended 
himself against an invasion from Norway and the resistance of his own 
brother ; but in September, A. D. 1066, William landed in the south of 
England with a formidable array of knights and gentlemen, and in the 
battle of Hastings ended the reign with the life of Harold. 

90. The Norman Conquest, which introduced feudalism into England, 
was among the most decisive events in European history. The lands of 
the conquered island were bestowed in fief upon the followers of the 
duke; the abbeys and bishoprics, upon foreign churchmen. The language 
of the Conqueror — French as somewhat modified by the Northmen — was 
enforced in legal transactions ; and not only the sovereigns, but most of 
the nobility of England, for eight hundred years have been of Norman 
blood. Some of the outlawed Saxons repaired to Constantinople, where 
they entered the service of the Eastern emperor, and soon enjoyed the 
opportunity of fighting their Norman foes dui'ing the Crusades. The 
greater number remained upon the lands as tenants or serfs of the con- 
querors, and their language, with a certain mixture of Norman words, 
became the predominant element in modern English. 

91. In passing through southern Italy on their way to the Holy Land, 

the Norman pilgrims had not failed to remark the weakness of a country 

divided between Greeks, Lombards, and Saracens, who wasted their forces 

in petty wars. Joining one or another of these belligerent 

^, "= ^ A. D. 1040. 

parties, they managed by stratagem or force of arms to 

possess themselves of great domains. Twelve Norman counts gained 

twelve cities with their territories in Apulia, and formed a military 

republic, with William of the Iron Arm at its head. They lived by 

M. H.— 4. 



50 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

brigandage, and so annoyed their neighbors that Pope Leo IX. ptisiiaded 
the Eastern and Western emperors to join in a league against them. In 
. ^ a battle near Civitella the Normans were victorious; the 

A. D. 10o3. 

Pope was made prisoner, and compelled to bestow upon his 
captors, as vassals of the Church, not only all the lands they had con- 
quered, but all which they might yet obtain. 

92. Robert Guiscard was the first duke of Apulia and Calabria. He 
not only drove from the maritime cities the last of the Greek magistrates, 
but conquered from the Lombards their three great principalities of 
Salerno, Capua, and Benevento, which had outlasted by three centuries 
the kingdom of their countrymen in the north of Italy, His brother 
Roger, meanwhile, with a few hundreds of Norman volunteers, conquered 
Sicily from the Saracens, and held it as a dependency of the duchy of 
Apulia. Thus arose the kingdom of Naples, or the Two Sicilies, which 
throughout its separate existence (until A. D. 1860) continued to be a 
"fief of St. Peter." 

Not content with having founded, from the resources of a private ad- 
venturer, a kingdom which was to continue nearly eight centuries, Robert 
Guiscard aspired to conquer the empire of the East. He vanquished the 
Emperor Alexis Comnenus in a great battle before Durazzo, A. D. 1081, 
but was recalled to Italy by a rebellion of his subjects, and undertook, 
A. D. 1084, the protection of Pope Gregory VII. against the Western 
emperor, Henry IV. (See | 108.) He died A. D. 1085, and his domin- 
ions, after the death of his grandson, passed to the son of his brother 
Roger, who first of the family received the title of king. 

93. The foundation of the Russian Empire by pagan Northmen, A. D. 
862, has already been noticed. Many separate principalities were formed 
by successive chieftains, all of whom owned a sort of feudal allegiance 
to the family of Ruric. Christianity was early introduced by mission- 
aries from Cherson and Constantinople; and in A. D. 955, Queen Olga, 
widow of the son of Ruric, and regent of the empire, was baptized in 
the latter city, 

Vladimir the Great, after his baptism, established churches and schools 
. x> „o„ ,„ r throughout the empire, which he had enlarged by the con- 

A. D. 980-1015. ° ^ ' . . 

quest of Gallicia, Lithuania, and Livonia. After his death 
his dominions were divided by family wars similar to those of the Car- 
lovingians; but they were reunited under Yaroslav (A. D. 1036), who 
contributed greatly to their civilization by reclaiming waste lands, multi- 
plying towns, churches, and schools, ordering the translation of Greek 
books — especially the Holy Scriptures — into the Slavonian language, 
and compiling the first Russian code of laws. First of the Russian sov- 
ereigns, he allied himself with the western nations by the marriage of his 
three daughters with the kings of France, Norway, and Hungary. 



THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 51 

:Ea,EC-A-I'XTTTXi.A-TIO^. 

During the decline of the Carlovingian empire, the power of the great vassals exceeded 
that of the sovereigns. Feudal System became prevalent. Misery of the serfs was only 
alleviated by the protection of the Church. The "truce of God" imposed a check upon 
private wars. 

Alfred of England and Charles III. of France granted lands to the Danes, or North- 
men, who in the latter country became settled and highly civilized. The efficient defense 
of France by the counts of Paris, and the incompetence of the kings, occasioned a revo- 
lution of nearly a hundred years, which at length overthrew the Carlovingian and estab- 
lished the Capetian dynasty in France. 

The power of the Church, fostered by the first two Capetians, was increased by the ter- 
rors of the year of doom. Pilgrimages, monastic vows, and liberal ecclesiastical foundations 
relieved the burdened consciences of the great. The Normans, under their duke William, 
became the sovereign race in England ; under Robert and Roger Guiscard, in southern 
Italy and Sicily ; and under the descendants of Ruric, in Russia. 



EISE OF THE ITALIAN EEPUBLICS. 

94. In the north of Italy, the three republics of Genoa, Pisa, and 
Venice were at this time most powerful. The latter claimed to be the 
eldest and only true daughter of the Eoman Eepublic, having arisen, 
before the fall of the empire, from a population of Italians unmixed 
with the northern barbarians. (See Anc. Hist., Book V, | 249.) At first 
each island, peopled by a separate band of refugees, had its own tribune; 
but a more consolidated government was formed by the Assembly at 
Heraclea, A. D. 697, which elected for life a duke or doge, with all the 
powers of a king. Paul Luke Anafesta was the first doge of the united 
republic. 

Pepin, son of Charlemagne, tried, in A. D. 809, to conquer Venice 
from the Eastern emperor, Nicephorus, who claimed it as a dependency. 
The citizens, concentrating themselves on the Eialto, defeated all his 
attempts to penetrate the winding and narrow passages between the 
islands; and as a monument of their success, built the ducal palace 
where it now stands. Twenty years later, the remains of St. Mark were 
brought from Alexandria and enshrined in the church which bears his 
name. The saint, or his emblematic winged lion, became the guardian 
of the republic, emblazoned on its standards, imprinted on its money, 
identified in every way with the state itself. By conquering the Dalma- 
tian and Istrian pirates, the Venetians extended their dominion east of 
the Adriatic, and laid the foundation of the greatest commercial power 
x)f the Middle Ages. Alone of all the Italian republics, Venice never 
submitted to the German emperors, nor acknowledged any other secular 
authority within her walls. 

95. Pisa was the first of the Tuscan cities to grow rich by commerce. 
The wealth of her merchants redeemed the marshes of the lower Arno, 



52 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

and made the whole region of the Maremma, now half deserted, a delight- 
ful garden. The islands of the Mediterranean being held by the Saracens, 
and Venice and Amalfi claiming all the commerce of that sea, Pisa gained 
her power only by continual strife. Sardinia was conquered, A. D. 1017- 
1021, by the allied Pisans and Genoese, from the Mohammedan corsairs, 
and was ultimately divided in fiefs among the Pisan nobles. 

96. Genoa, sometimes the ally, but always the rival of Pisa, extended 
her power over the cities of the two Rivieras from Nice to Spezzia. Her 
constitution, like those of most of the Italian cities, was modeled upon 
that of the Roman Eepublic. The four or six chief magistrates were 
called consuls. At the end of their term of office they rendered a strict 
account to the people. 

1)7. The fortifications of cities which, throughout northern Italy, had 
been destroyed by the Lombards, were rebuilt only by permission of the 
emperor, which included also the right to organize a citizen soldiery, and 
to take all needful measures for defense against the barbarians. The 
right of independent warfare belonged to municipalities as well as to 
barons, and the feuds of the Italian cities — especially of Pavia and Milan, 
the two capitals of Lombardy — fill a large place in mediaeval annals. 
Pavia, situated in a fertile plain, held the control of all the rivers of 
Lombardy, and had been the favorite residence of the Lombard kings, 
Milan, seat of the Western Empire since the days of Diocletian, and of 
the first and greatest archbishopric in northern Italy, was richer, more 
warlike, and more powerful than her rival. 

98. No period, even of the Dark Ages, is so dark as that which fol- 
lowed the dissolution of the Carlovingian power. Italy was overspread 
by the ravages of Saracens from the south and Hungarians from the 
north. The Arabian freebooters were the refuse and outlaws of their race, 
owing allegiance to neither of the Caliphates ; while the Magyars, like 
their predecessors, the Huns, were regarded rather as wild beasts than as 
men. The Italian kings, absorbed in their rivalries, were unable to resist 
the marauders. Berengar's authority was divided successively with the 
emperors Guy and Lambert, and with Louis of Aries and Eudolph of 
Burgundy, who were crowned at Monza even during his life. 

99. After the death of Berengar I., the Italian crown was bestowed 
upon Hugh of Provence, who proved an intolerable tyrant. He married 
Marozia (see § 103), but her son, Alberic, expelled him from Rome, and 
ruled that city many years as consul or senator. At length Berengar, 
marquis of Ivrea, being threatened by King Hugh with the loss of his 
eyes, took refuge in Germany. The crown of that countiy, after the 
failure of the Carlovingian line, had been conferred first upon Conrad of 
Franconia, and then upon Henry the Fowler, the first of the Saxon 
dynasty. This great sovereign restored and confirmed the power of the 



THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 53 

Gertiian kingdom by his victories over the pagans on its eastern frontier. 
He wrested the mark of Brandenburg from the Slavonians, 

A. D. 934. 

and at Merseburg, in Saxony, gained a great and decisive 

victory over the Magyars. His son, Otho, was now king of Germany. 

100. Berengar returned with a large army of Italian refugees, A. D. 
945, and was welcomed as master of Italy. Hugh retired into his own 
kingdom of Provence ; his son, Lothaire, died A. D. 960, and Berengar 
was crowned king. But Adelaide, the widow of Lothaire, who had been 
imprisoned by Berengar for refusing to marry Adalbert, his son, escaped 
from her dungeon, found means of crossing the Alps, and threw herself 
upon the protection of Otho I. This sovereign, who was no less a brave 
knight than a generous king, descended into Italy, wedded the injured 
princess, and compelled her persecutor to hold his kingdom as a vassal of 
the eastern Franks. But the nobles were still discontented, and after ten 
years of Berengar's turbulent reign, the Pope invited Otho to restore 
peace and order to Italy by accepting the imperial crown. He was 
crowned with Queen Adelaide at Eome, in February, 962. 

101. The " Holy Roman Empire," thus revived, continued to be in- 
separable from the German kingdom.* Its name indicates the deep place 
it held in the belief and reverence of the best spirits of the age. To a 
Eoman emperor alone could men took for the reestablishment of peace 
and justice in the place of anarchy and tumult, for Eome alone had ever 
yet united all civilized nations under her sway, and guaranteed order to 
the world. The emperor was by theory " lord of the world," the repre- 
sentative of the Divine Euler in temporal, no less than the pope in 
spiritual affairs. Of course, the theory was little more than a dream, but 
it had its influence in elevating the views of the best of the emperors. It 
came to its fullest development in the Ghibelline or imperial i)arty, here- 
after to be described. 

102. The existence of the Byzantine emperors, especially their su- 
premacy in nearly one-third of Italy, was a continual protest against 
Otho's claim to be heir of the Caesars. In a four years' war he gained 
many victories over Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimiskes, though he 
was not able to overthrow their Italian dominion. His son, Otho II., 
married the Greek princess Theophano, and renewed in her name the 
wars in southern Italy ; but he was totally defeated at Basientello by a 
combined force of Greeks and Saracens, and narrowly escaped with his 
life. Otho III. became king of Germany when only three years of age, 
at his father's death, and at sixteen received the imperial crown at 
Rome. Instructed equally by his accomplished Greek mother and by the 



* Emperors after Courad II. received four crowns : the German at Aix, the Burgundian 
at Aries, the Italian at Monza or Milan, and the imperial at Rome. vt 



64 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

wise and virtuous prelate, Gerbert of Aurillac, the young emperor had 
the most exalted ideas both of his dignities and duties. He aspired at 
once to make Rome the capital of the world, and to set up an ideal king- 
dom of righteousness and peace. 

103. By appointing first his cousin, Bruno, and then his venerable 
tutor, Gerbert, to the papal chair, he sought to raise the character of the 
Roman bishops ; for wealth and power had produced their too common 
effects in the Church, and even the pontiffs, who for centuries had been 
remarkable for the severity and purity of their lives, were now accused of 
every conceivable crime. For sixty years the wealth and influence of 
Theodora and Marozia, Roman ladies of high rank but degraded charac- 
ter, controlled all Roman affairs, and even disposed of the papal crown. 
Crescentius, a factious noble, by appealing to the miseries and the pa- 
triotism of the populace, managed to gain supreme j^ower with the titles 
of consul, senator, and even emperor. Though ruling in the sacred names 
of freedom and justice, he was probably a mere demagogue, and was not 
undeservedly beheaded by order of Otho III., A. D. 998. But the young 
emperor was cut off in the dawn of his manhood, and the papacy reached 
its lowest depth of degradation in the sons and descendants of Theodora. 
Two antipopes disputed the title of Gregory VI. ; and Henry III, the 
most absolute of the emperors, deposing all three, replaced them with 
Clement II. A succession of six German popes revived the credit, and 
in some degree the power of the Roman see. 

104. Henry III. left his son and heir only five years old. During the 
long minority, Hildebrand, a Tuscan monk, produced, by his zeal, talents, 
and indomitable will, a strong reaction against the imperial power. He 
had secured the election of Victor II., and no less during the pontificates 
of Stephen IX., Nicolas II., and Alexander II., he was the " soul of the 
papal court." He obtained a decree against the marriage of the clergy, a 
custom which, though more or less discountenanced, had never been uni- 
versally suppressed. The decree was nowhere cordially received, but it 
exasperated especially the Lombard priests, M'ho felt justified in their 
domestic relations by the teachings of their great archbishop. St. Ambrose, 
and the example of two of his successors. Their resistance was punished 
as heresy, and thence arose the sect of the Nicola'ites. 

A still more severe struggle was for the right of investiture, which had 
been claimed by princes and nobles in churches which they themselves 
had founded. In France and Germany bishops were either nominated or 
confirmed by the sovereign; in England, by the parliament. Among 
other flagrant abuses of the age was the purchase of oflices in the Church, 
and it was ostensibly to guard against this crime of "simony" that the 
Council at the Laterau prohibited clergymen to receive benefices from, or 
own allegiance to, laymen. But as more than half the lands in Germany 



THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. 55 

fcad been granted to churchmen on condition of feudal obedience, this 
was evidently a mortal blow at the king and secular princes. 

105. Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII.), A. D. 1073. Henry IV. 
was then twenty-three years of age. Though possessed of great talents 
and noble impulses, his passions were ill-regulated by a defective educa- 
tion, and his harsh measures had already driven nearly all the princes of 
the empire into revolt. He was prejudiced against the Church by the 
hostile movements of the clergy during his minority, 'and after a little 
diplomatic skirmishing war actually broke out. Gregory VII. was sol- 
emnly deposed by the Diet at Worms; Henry IV. by the Council at 
Rome. A sentence of excommunication absolved all the subjects of the 
latter from their allegiance, and declared it a crime to render him the 
slightest service. The papal authority — more respected in Germany than 
in Italy — encouraged Eudolph of Suabia, with other nobles and bishops, 
to make tierce and unrelenting war upon the emperor. 

106. A diet was summoned at Augsburg, where the Pope was to pre- 
side, and to judge between Henry and his foes. If his excommunication 
v,'as not then removed, a new sovereign was to be chosen. In this crisis, 
the emperor traversed some of the wildest passes of the Alps in mid- 
winter, stood three days barefoot and fasting in the snow at the gate of 
the Castle of Canossa, where the Pope was then residing, , ^ ,„„„ 

' ^ _ ° A. D. 1077. 

and finally obtained a grudging removal of his sentence 
only by engaging to appear anew, at whatever time and place Hildebi'and 
should appoint, and submit his imjierial title to the decision of a diet. 
The Germans were indignant at this sacrifice of their emperor's dignity; 
and Henry himself had no sooner left the papal presence than he re- 
sumed the war with fresh fury, and gained a decisive victory over Eudolph 
of Suabia. 

107. Gregory VII. owed much to the firm friendship and ardent zeal 
of Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, who consecrated her life to the service 
of the Church, and at her death left all her inherited estates, then the 
greatest of the Italian fiefs, as patrimony of St. Peter. Her first husband, 
the Duke of Lower Lorraine, had fought on the side of the emperor ; but 
after his death, A. D. 1076, his wife maintained an independent court, 
reigned like a queen over Lombardy and Tuscany, and placed her armies 
and fortresses at the disposal of the Pope. Another source of strength to 
the pontitF was in the sympathy of the common people, who saw in him 
a man of their own rank, elevated to a power above that of kings or 
barons; able, and, as they long believed, willing to deliver them from 
their oppressors. The monks and clergy hailed him as the champion of 
their order against the secular power, so that numbers and intellect — the 
latter represented almost exclusively by the Church — were all on Hilde- 
brand's side. 



56 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

108. Rudolph of Suabia was chosou emperor by the Geiuian princes, 
and, after "a victory over IJenry at Muhlhausen, received tlie imperial 
crown from Gregory VII. Henry retaliated by procuring the election of 
Clement III., who crowned his patron as emperor in 1084. Gregory was 
now shut up in the Castle of tft. Angelo, by the German army, which, 
with a multitude of Roman citizens, had for three years been besieging 
Rome. He was relieved by Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke of Apulia, 
who was encouraged by Gregory to expect for himself the crown of the 
Western Empire. He burned a large portion of the city and left it in a 
desolation from which it has never recovered. 

Gregory VII. died, A. D. 1085, at tSalerno, uttering curses against 
Henry with his latest breath. His successors continued his policy with 
equal zeal but inferior talents. They renewed the excommunication of 
the emperor, and persuaded his two sons, Conrad and Henry, successively, 
to rebel against him. His intention to abdicate in favor of the latter was 
anticipated by the indecent haste of the Diet of Mentz, which tore from 
him tlie crown and mantle, and loudly hailed his son as successor in the 
empire. The emperor, with the few friends that remained to him, gained 
one victory, but was afterward defeated in battle; and in the depth of 
poverty even begged in vain for the office of chorister in a church which 
he had himself founded at Spires. He died of u'rief, and 
his body remained live years unburied, until, in 1111, the 
exci)nuuunication was at last removed, and the long forbidden funeral 
was celebrated with uiuisual magnitieence. 

lOJ). In the Byzantine Empire Basil I., a Slavonian groom, gained the 
crown, A. D. 8G7, by the murder of his patron, Michael the Drunkard. 
His grandson claimed for him a descent from the Arsacidte of Parthia, 
and even from Alexander the Great; but impartial writers have refuted 
. ^ ,._,,-_ the assertion. His dynasty, which, with some interruptions, 
occupied the throne nearly two hundred years, bore, how- 
ever, the name of Macedonian. The armies of Basil put an end to the 
little republic of the Paulicians, having slain its chief, Chrysochir, and 
demolished its stronghold of Tephrike. The expelled and wandering sec- 
taries carried their doctrines into Euro[>e, where they were found several 
centuries later among the Albigenses of southern France. Others joined 
the imperial army which drove the Saracens from the southern extremity 
of Italy and established the Lombard theme. ^ 

The municipal republics of Gaeta, Naples, Soi'rento, and Amalfi, re- 
newed their formal allegiance to the Eastern Empire ; though their 



* The theme or militiiry district of Lombardy will, of course, be distinguished from the 
earlier kingdom and later province of the same name at tJie otiier extremity of the pen- 
insula. 



THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 57 

'' dukes," who had replaced the ancient tyrants, often allied themselves 
with the popes, or even with the Saracens, to make war with the Byzan- 
tine generals. The capture of Syracuse, A. D. 878, made the Mussulmans 
masters of the whole of Sicily, and their piratical craft swarmed through- 
out the Mediterranean. Even Thessalonica, the second city in the East- 
ern Empire, was seized by them, and the massacre of its j^opulation was 
among the chief calamities of tlie reign of Leo VI. (A. D. 886-911.) 
Twenty-two thousand of its youth, reserved from the slaughter, were sold 
into slavery. 

110. Constantiue VII. (Porphyrogenitus*) spent the first thirty-three 
years of his nominal reign in retirement, owing first to his minority, and 
afterward to the usurpation by Romanus I. and his three sons of the 
greater share in the imperial dignity. Constantine afterward reigned 
fourteen years alone, beloved by his subjects for his mild and equitable 
policy, though his studious and secluded life had deprived him of the 
knowledge of men, and subjected him to the impositions of unfaithful 
servants. His love of literature secured the preservation of many precious 
manuscripts; and his own works on the science of government, and on 
the life of the founder of his dynasty, contain the most valuable pictures 
of the state of the empire at that otherwise obscure period. 

Romanus II., the son of Constantine, or rather his great general, 
Nicephorus Phocas, conquered Crete from the Saracens, 
an enterprise in which two emperors had signally failed. 
Nicephorus was raised to the imperial rank upon the death of Romanus, 
and ruled with great energy as guardian and colleague of the infant sons 
of his predecessor. He was murdered by his nephew, John Zimiskes, 
who likewise, with the imperial rank and dignity, held the place of prime 
minister to the young emperors Basil II. and Constantine IX. 

111. The great event of John's reign was a war with the Scandinavian 
rulers of Russia, now a powerful dynasty, who harassed the shores of the 
Eastern Empire as seriously as their countrymen at the same time were 
vexing those of Western Europe. The emperor signally defeated them at 
Presthlava in Bulgaria, A. B. 971, and, after besieging their remaining 
forces in Dorystolon, made a treaty which added the kingdom of Bul- 
garia, lately conquered by the Russians, to the empire, thus extending its 
bounds again to the Danube. The peace was first broken, A. D. 988, by 
Vladimir the Great of Russia, who seized the important commercial city 
of Cherson, more lately known as Sevastopol. From its foundation as a 
Greek colony, it had retained its republican constitution until the reign 



* This title, "bom in the purple," belongs to most of the sons of Byzantine emperors, 
being derived from a porphyry-lined apartment in the imperial palace. It is applied more 
especially to Constantine VII., to distinguish him from his colleague, Constantine, son of 
Romanus I. 



58 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

of Theophilus, and still boasted its independence in local affairs. Vladi- 
mir married a sister of the emperor, Basil II., and, having himself been 
baptized, took vigorous measures to complete the Christianization of his 
people. 

112, Under Basil II. the empire reached its highest pitch of military- 
glory. In a nearly forty years' war he conquered the Bulgarians and 
other Slavonian tribes of the Hellenic peninsula; but he disgraced his 
victory by a needless act of barbarity. Fifteen thousand prisoners were 
deprived of their eyes and thus sent back to their king, who died of grief 
and rage at the terrible sight. After the short and insignificant reign of 
Constantine IX., the fortunes of the empire w-ere for nearly thirty years 
in the hands of the more or less wicked favorites of his daughters Zoe 
and Theodora, whose administrations need not here be detailed. 

113. A new dynasty was then founded by Isaac Comnenus, a general 
of high birth, who was raised ro the throne by his brother officers, A. D. 
1057. Upon his resignation two years later, his brother John refused the 
crown, and four sovereigns of different families succeeded before Alexis 
I., son of John Comnenus, began his honorable but disastrous reign. His 
daughter, the princess Anna Comnena, has written the annals of her 
times, and has described the disasters which afflicted the declining em- 
pire. The victorious Turks had now spread from Persia to the Helles- 
pont. The regions north of the Black Sea poured forth fresh swarms of 
barbarians ; the Normans were invading Greece ; and suddenly the first of 
a long series of events, soon to be described, " precipitated all Europe 
upon Asia,'' and threatened to sweep away the feeble remnant of the 
empire of Constantine. 

Kise of Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and the Lombard cities. Italy devastated by Saracens and 
Hungarians. After the fall of the Carlovingians, the Italian crown is worn by Berengar I., 
Hugh, Lothaire, and Berengar II., until Otho I. unites it with that of Germany, and adds 
to both the diadem of the Ctesars. Rise of the Saxon line with Henry the Fowler. " Holy 
Roman Empire " implies the lordship of the world. Contest between the eastern and 
western Ccesars for supremacy in Italy. Otho III. inherits the claims and ideas of both, 
reforms the papacy, and overthrows Crescentius. Contest of Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) 
with Emperor Henry IV. ^ Humiliation of the latter ; his sons rebel against him, and he 
dies excommunicate. Basil I. founds a new dynasty in the Eastern Empire; conquers the 
Paulicians ; establishes the Lombard theme in southern Italy. Syracuse and Thessalonica 
taken by Mohammedans; massacre in the latter city and captivitj' of its inhabitants. 
Virtues and literary works of Constantine VII. Conquest of Crete by Nicephorus Phocas. 
War of John Zimiskes with the Russians. Capture of Cherson by Vladimir the Great, and 
diffusion of Christianitj' in Russia. Military achievements and atrocious cruelty of Basil 
11. Rise of the Comneui and disasters of the reign of Alexis I. 



QUESTIONS FOB REVIEW. 59 



QXJBSTIOlSrS FOR RE'V^IEAV^. 

Book I. 

1. Why was Europe early civilized ? §2. 

2. Describe its principal features. . . 3, 4. 

3. Name the positions of its various tribes and races, A. D. 476 5-7. 

4. Describe the ancient character and customs of the Germans 8. 

5 Their ancient religion and the order of their conversion to Chris- 
tianity 9, 51, 83. 

6. Sketch the history of the Merovingian monarchy 10-13. 

7. How many nations ruled the whole or part of Italy during the Dark Ages? 

8. Tell the history of the Goths in Italy 14-20. 

9. Of the Lombards 21-23. 

10. Name the emperors, or dynasties, at Constantinople during the Dark Ages. 

24^36, 65-69, 109-113. 

11. Describe fully the reign of Justinian 1 24-29. 

12. Of Heraclius ^'^"^2. 

13. Of the last of the Heraclian dynasty 33. 

14. Of Leo III., and its effects in Italy 34-36, 48, 65. 

15. What empresses ruled either as regents or sovereigns? . . . .66, 69, 112. 

16. Describe the condition of Western and Central Asia under the Amorian 

dynasty ^^• 

17. Tell the history of the Paulicians. 69-109. 

18. Of the Basilian or Macedonian dynasty 109-112. 

19. Describe the career of Mohammed and the character of his teachings. . . 37-39. 

20. The progress and limits of the Mo.slem dominion. . . . 40, 41, 46. 

21. The Mohammedans in Spain and France 42-45, 50. 

22. The Golden Age of the Caliphs 63, 64. 

23. Depredations of the Saracen pirates 64, 98, 109. 

24. What circumstances led to the supremacy of the Church and the temporal 

sovereignty of the popes? 10,48,49,57,78,87,88,104-108. 

25. Who were the founders of the second Frankish dynasty? . . . • 13, 44, 48. 

26. What incidents attended the restoration of the Western Empire? ... 55, 56. 

27. Why was the empire of the Franks and Saxons called "Koman?" . . .56, 101. 

28. Describe the reign and character of Charle^nagne 50-58. 

29. Of his son and successor 59, 60. 

30. The division of the empire 60-62. 

31. Changes in the kingdom of Burgundy 5, 10, 61, 79, 81. 

32. Name the Carlovingian kings of France 81, 83-85. 

33. What led to the rise of the Capetian or Angevin dynasty? . . . 80,84,85. 

34. What kings of Italy between the fall of the Carlovingians and the reunion 

of the peninsula with the empire? 81,99,100. 

35. Tell the history of the Anglo-Saxons in England 6, 57, 71, 82, 89, 90. 

36. Origin and history of the Normans 72-74, 83, 88-93. 

37. Describe the rise and progress of the Russian Empire 73, 93, 111. 

38. The Gothic kingdom in Spain 5, 42, 70. 

39. Who were the greatest feudal chiefs in the ninth century? .... 75. 

40. Describe the Feudal sy.stem 76, 77 

41. The rise of the Italian Republics 94-97. 

42. The Saxon emperors and their relations with the popes. - . . 100-108. 



BOOK II. 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 

A. D. 1096-1493. 



Period I. The Crusades. A. D. 1096-1291. 



THE CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM. 

1. The three Saracen empires on the eastern, southern, and western 
shores of the Mediterranean, now presented but a faint shadow of their 
former greatness. Wealth gained by conquest had destroyed the martial 
energy of the disciples of the Prophet, and the armies of the caliphs were 
recruited from the more vigorous tribes of Tartars which roamed over the 
great plains of central Asia. These northern barbarians, like the Gothic 
and Frankish mercenaries*of Rome, became stronger than their masters, 
and aspired to raise and put down monarchs at their pleasure. At length 
the caliphs resigned all military command to the Sultan of the Turks, 
who bore the title of " Lieutenant of the Vicar of the Prophet," reserving 
to themselves only the spiritual duties and honors which belonged to the 
successors of Mohammed. 

2. The first of the Turkish lieutenants was Togrol Beg, the founder of 
the Seljukian, and conqueror of the Ghaznevide dynasty of sultans. His 
nephew and successor. Alp Arslan, annexed Armenia and Georgia to his 
dominion, and, in four years' war with the Eastern empire, gained at last 
a decisive victory over Romanus Diogenes. His son, Malek 

Shah, the greatest prince of his time, reigned over a larger 
empire than that of Cyrus, for it extended from Arabia to the borders of 
China. The Seljukian kingdom of Roum included all Asia Minor ; and 
Nice in Bithynia, its capital, was a continual menace to Constantinople. 
But a still greater humiliation was the conquest of Jerusa- 
lem by the Turks, whose new zeal for the faith of Moham- 
med made them treat Christian pilgrims with ferocious barbarity. 

(61) 



62 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

3. So long as the caliphs, either of Bagdad or Cairo, governed Syria, 
their eolightened policy protected and encouraged European travelers. 
A quarter of Jerusalem was assigned for their use, and the keys of the 
Holy Sepulcher were in their hands; while in return the country was 
enriched by the money which they freely spent for relics and memen- 
toes of the holy places. Syria, as the natural center of Mediterranean 
commerce, attracted multitudes of merchants, among whom the Greek 
inhabitants of Amalfi were most numerous and enterprising. Their ships 
conveyed western pilgrims to the ports of Palestine, and their liberality 
endowed the church and hospital of St. John of Jerusalem for their 
entertainment. 

4. During the latter half of the eleventh century, the number of 
pilgrims was greatly multiplied, in spite of the increased peril, or rather, 
perhaps, in consequence of it. Seven thousand devotees, led by the 
primate of Germany and several of his bishops, braved the hostility of the 
Turks and visited Jerusalem, but they were glad to return by means of a 
Genoese fleet. Hildebrand himself prepared to lead fifty thousand volun- 
teers to the rescue of Christian residents in the east from the hand of the 
infidel. 

But it was reserved for Peter, a hermit of Picardy, eflfectually to kindle 
that flame of martial and religious zeal which was to burn two centuries 
in Europe. He returned from his pilgrimage, bearing letters from the 
patriarch Symeon, of Jerusalem, to Pope Urban II. and the whole multi- 
tude of Latin Christians, beseeching their aid. The Pope took counsel 
with Boemond, prince of Taranto, the son of Robert Guiscard. The 
Norman had inherited all his father's ambition ; in the fanatical scheme 
of the hermit he saw his own chance of recovering the provinces of 
lUyria, Macedonia, and Greece, which, in his father's lifetime, he had 
wrested from the Eastern empire — as well as a victory for the pontiflP over 
his rival, Guibert, who had been appointed by Henry IV., and for his 
comrades and followers, unlimited wealth and dominion in the spoils of 
the Saracens and Turks. 

5. Peter preached the holy war throughout Italy and France, in streets, 
highways, and churches ; in the palace and the cottage ; and was every- 
where received with a rapture of enthusiasm. The Pope himself set forth 

the claims of the East in the two councils of Piacenza and 

A. D. 1095. 

Clermont, where legates from the emperor, Alexis, also 
described the ravages of the infidel, and appealed to the chivalry of 
Europe for the defense of the only bulwark of Christianity in Asia. The 
crowd at Clermont responded with tears, groans, and the shout, "Dieu le 
veuf" (God wills it), which became the battle-cry of the Crusades. Thou- 
sands of every rank and age placed the red cross upon their shoulders, and 
declared their purpose to die, if need were, in the Holy Land. Even the 



THE CRUSADES. 63 

mountains of Wales, Scotland, and Norway heard the summons and sent 
forth their swarms of Christian soldiery. Europe forgot her private 
feuds; nobles sold or mortgaged their lands and castles; artisans and 
peasants, their tools and implements of husbandry; monks exchanged 
the cowled robe for armor of steel; serfs and debtors were released from 
bondage by their assumption of the cross; even robbers, pirates, and 
murderers renounced their lawless life, and believed that they could 
wash away its guilt in the blood of the infidels. 

6. Unhappily, the first act of the Crusaders was a persecution and 
massacre of the Jews in the cities on the Rhine. In that dark age, 
hatred of unbelievers was deemed an essential feature of the Christian 
disposition, and the worst barbarities were committed against the He- 
brews during the two centuries of the Holy Wars. The emperor, Henry 
IV., perhaps enlightened by his own experience of persecution, took 
these unhappy people under his protection, and ordered a strict resti- 
tution of their property. 

7. Historians of the time assert that six millions of men, women, and 
children assumed the cross. The time of departure was fixed at August 
15, 1096 ; but the ignorant and unwarlike rabble, who had deserted their 
industries without foresight of the means of subsistence, did not await the 
appointed day. Above 60,000 peasantry from the borders of France and 
Lorraine set forward under the guidance of Walter the Penniless, a brave 
though needy soldier ; Peter followed with 40,000 more ; and an irregular 
host of 200,000 without officers, guides, or the slightest knowledge of the 
way, pressed upon their heels. Failing of the miraculous supplies of 
food which they expected, they attempted to live at the expense of the 
countries through which they passed, and multitudes were put to death 
by the enraged inhabitants. 

When the regular army of Crusaders arrived, a few months later, on 
the borders of Hungary, they found heaps of unburied corpses; — to 
their inquiries the king replied that the followers of Walter and Peter 
were certainly not disciples of Christ, and that their crimes of rapine and 
murder had only been justly avenged. The remnant who survived were 
kindly received by the emperor Alexis ; but the ruined s:ar- 

11 1 1 , . ^^ . A- D. 1096. 

dens, palaces, and even churches of Constantinople soon 
testified the barbarous ingratitude of his guests. Passing over into Asia, 
they were easily vanquished by Kilidge Arslan on the plains of Nice, 
and a pyramid of their bones was almost the sole remnant of this ad- 
vanced guard of the crusading hosts. 

8. Very different was the brave and brilliant array which, in four 
columns, for the sake of more abundant forage, set out in ttie autumn 
of 1096. The chivalry of Lorraine and north-eastern France were led 
through Germany, Hungary, and Bulgaria by Godfrey of Bouillon, duke 



64^ MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

of Lower Lorraine and one of the noblest knights in Christendom. Ray- 
mond, Count of Toulouse and the greatest seigneur of southern France, 
led his host through Lombardy to Aquileia, and thence through Dalmatia 
and Slavonia. Prince Boemond of Taranto had a sufficient fleet to trans- 
port his army across the Adriatic. The remaining division was led by 
four royal princes — Hugh of Vermandois, brother of the King of France; 
Eobert of Normandy, eldest son of the King of England ; another Robert, 
Count of Flanders, and Stephen of Chartres and Blois, who had as many 
castles as there are days in the year. They traveled the length of Italy 
amid the applause of the people, and Avere intrusted by Pope Urban II. 
with the golden standard of St. Peter; but their army became scattered 
in the easy and triumphant march, and the four princes crossed the 
Adriatic in a less dignified array than that in which they had set out. 

9. The emperor, Alexis, was overwhelmed by the numbers, and not a 
little incensed by the conduct of his allies. All his ingenuity was taxed 
to prevent a meeting of any two of their armies before the walls of his 
capital, and to expedite their departure for the Holy City. Their first 
operation was the siege of Nice, the Turkish capital of the kingdom of 
Roum, Avhich was taken, June 20, 1097, and restored to the empire. The 
Turks were also defeated near Dorylaeum in a hard-fought battle. Tan- 
cred, a kinsman of Boemond, and Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, were then 
sent forward with their horsemen. The former captured Tarsus. Bald- 
win, coming up after it was taken, desired to plunder the town in violation 
of its terms of surrender. His quarrel with the just and noble Tancred 
brought upon him the displeasure of all the crusaders, and, separating his 
own followers from the main army, he invaded Mesopotamia on his own 
account. 

Edessa was then governed by a Grecian duke, who paid a heavy tribute 
to the Turks. Being childless, he adopted Baldwin, who as prince of 
Edessa threw off" the Turkish yoke, made conquests among the hills of 
Armenia and the plains of Mesopotamia, and thus founded the first Latin 
sovereignty in Asia. That of Antioch was soon afterward gained by Boe- 
mond, Prince of Tarento. The city withstood a seven months' siege ; and 
even when it was taken through the treachery of a Syrian renegade, the 
citadel held out, and a great reinforcement of Turks from Mosul reduced 
the Christian army, now exhausted by famine, to tlie verge of destruction. 
The timely discovery of a sacred lance, said to have been pointed out by 
a vision of St. Andrew, animated the crusaders to new and indomitable 
zeal ; a fresh attack was made in twelve divisions in honor of the twelve 
Apostles, and the Turkish host was annihilated or scattered. The emperor 
Alexis rejoiced equally in the conquest of the Turks and the exliaustion 
of the Christians. A violent plague, aggravated by the summer heat, de- 
stroyed more than 100,000 of the crusading army. 




SYHIA 

and the 

Surrounding Coxintries at the 

Time of the Crusades. 

"by 

A. Ton SteinweliT. 

Scale 
__ 0_1P a) 30 40 61) 6^ 07080 QOTOOMls, 



s :e 



A 




THE CRUSADES. 65 

10. The Fatimite caliphs of Egypt had exulted in the victories of the 
Christians over their own enemies, the Turks, and had availed themselves 
of the abasement of the Seljukian power to repossess Jerusalem and all 
Palestine. PViendly letters and embassies were sent from Cairo to the 
Latin camp; but the leaders refused to make any distinction between the 
ferocious Turk and the courtly Saracen. They declared that the usurper 
of Jerusalem was their foe, whoever he might be; and early in the 
summer of 1099 the crusading host appeared before the Holy City. After 
three years' pilgrimage the first glimpse of Jerusalem was hailed with 
weeping and cries of joy. Their toils and sufferings were forgotten ; cast- 
ing themselves on the ground, the pilgrims gave thanks to Heaven, and 
"all had much ado to manage so great a gladness." The millions who 
had taken the vows were now reduced to 40,000 men ; more than 850,000 
had fallen by the way; of their princely leaders, two had returned to 
Europe and two were settled in their new principalities of Edessa and 
Antioch ; but Godfrey of Bouillon, Raymond of Toulouse, Robert of Nor- 
mandy, and Robert of Flanders pitched their respective camps on the 
northern and western sides of the city. 

11. Wood for the assaulting engines was brought thirty miles from the 
forests of Sichern. The siege lasted forty days, during which the crusaders 
euflPered intensely from want of water. The beds of the Gihon and Kedron 
were dry, and all cisterns had been destroyed by the Turks. The Saracens 
had now learned the use of Greek fire, and in the final attack for a day 
and a half victory seemed inclining toward the besieged. At length, 
however, on Friday, July 15, the victorious standard of Godfrey of Bou- 
illon was planted upon the wall of Jerusalem, 460 years 

from its conquest by the Saracens. In the moment of vic- 
tory the ferocious passions had sway — babes were torn from their mothers' 
arms to be dashed against the walls, and ten thousand Mohammedans 
were massacred in the Mosque of Omar. Then the soldiers of Christ 
remembered that they were pilgrims, and washing themselves of the blood 
they had so pitilessly shed, they walked in penitential procession to Mount 
Calvary, to weep and pray at the tomb of their Redeemer. 

12. Eight days after this great event, the army, by a unanimous vote, 
chose Godfrey of Bouillon to be king of Jerusalem and protector of Chris- 
tian interests in the Holy Land. The oflSce bore with it more of peril 
than of profit, and the great duke accepted it in all humility and faithful- 
ness. He refused to wear a crown of gold in the city where his Savior 
had worn a crown of thorns, but he consented to be styled Guardian of 
Jerusalem and Baron of the Holy Sepulcher. A code of laws, called the 
Assise of Jerusalem, was prepared by the most competent of the Latin 
pilgrims and deposited in the Tomb on Mount Calvary, A few weeks 

M. H. 5 



66 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

after the capture of the Holy City, the Sultan of Egypt approached with 
an army to retake it. He was decisively overthrown at Ascalon, and his 
sword and standard were hung as trophies before the Holy Sepulcher. 

13. The greater number of the crusaders, considering their vows ac- 
complished, then returned to Europe, leaving Godfrey and Tancred with 
300 knights and 2000 foot-soldiers to defend Palestine. The kingdom 
then consisted of only Jerusalem and Jaffa, with about twenty villages 
and towns lying in that region, but separated by fortresses of the Mo- 
hammedans. Godfrey survived his consecration but one year, and was 
succeeded by his brother, Baldwin. By successive conquests the Latin 
kingdom was extended east of the Euphrates and southward to the borders 
of Egypt. French law, language, titles, and customs reigned throughout 
the lands once governed by David and Solomon. Only four cities — Ems, 
Hamath, Damascus, and Aleppo — remained to the Mohammedans of all 
their Syrian conquests. The lands were parceled out, according to feudal 
custom, into the four great baronies of (1) Tripoli, (2) Galilee, (3) Caesarea 
and Nazareth. (4) Jaffa and Ascalon. 

14. The monks of the order of St. John rendered invaluable services to 
the crusading armies ; and in A. D. 1121 they added military vows to 
those of the cloister, forming the first of three orders of chivalry which 
became the valiant defenders of the Holy Land. Nobles and princes 
hastened to enroll themselves as " Knights Hospitallers," and youth were 
sent from all countries to be trained in the Hospital of St. John to the 
practice of religion and knightly virtues; 28,000 farms and manors were 
bestowed upon them in various countries of Christendom, and they were 
able to support a large army of horse and foot from their own revenues. 
The Templars had their origin about the same time in the voluntary 
association of nine French knights, who added to the usual vows of the 
religious orders a fourth, binding them to the protection of pilgrims and 
flhe defense of the Holy Sepulcher. Originally poor, the Templars, like 
the Hospitallers, soon became distinguished by their wealth, numbers, 
and pride. Their grand master had the dignity of a sovereign prince, 
and, as the order owned allegiance to none but the Pope, it became an 
object of jealousy to the kings in whose realms it had possessions. The 
Teutonic Order was of somewhat later date. 

15. When the glorious news of the capture of Jerusalem arrived in 
Europe, Hugh of Vermandois and Stephen of Chartres were filled with 
shame and regret at having so soon deserted their comrades. They hast- 
ened to retrieve their reputation by placing themselves at the head of a 
fresh swarm of French, German, and Lombard pilgrims who had now 
assumed the cross ; 420,000 persons set forth in A. D. 1101, but nearly all 
perished in Asia Minor from plague, famine, and the arrows of the Turks. 



THE CRUSADES. 67 

Decline of Saracen and rise of Turkish power. Turks conquer Jerusalem and oppress 
Christian pilgrims. Appeal of Peter the Hermit to Western Europe seconded by the 
ambition of Boemond of Tarento. At Council of Clermont multitudes of all classes assume 
the cross. Massacre of the Jews. An unmilitary throng of crusaders, preceding the regular 
armies, perish by starvation and violence. Departure of the princes; they are received 
with scant courtesy by the emperor, Alexis; gain victories over the Turks. Baldwin 
becomes Prince of Edessa ; Boem6nd, of Antioch. Jerusalem retaken by the Saracens of 
Egypt; is besieged and captured by the Crusaders. Godfrey of Bouillon chosen king. 
French law, language, and feudal institutions introduced into Palestine. Else of the Hos- 
pitallers and Templars. Destruction in Asia Minor of a second crusading host under the 
French princes. 

SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH CRUSADES. 

16. Several causes in Europe and Asia combined to bring about a 
Second Crusade. The county of Edessa was conquered by 

^ . ^ -^ A. D. 1146-1149. 

Zenghi, a Turkish chief, and the eastern frontier of Pales- 
tine thus lay open to invasion. Louis VII. of France, in war with his 
vassal, the Count of Champagne, violated his own conscience and the 
superstition of his subjects by ordering the burning of a church in which 
many hundreds of the surrendered people had taken refuge. Warned by 
illness, he resolved to expiate the crime by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, in 
which he was joined by his queen, the celebrated Eleanor, heiress of 
Aquitaine. The marvelous eloquence of Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, at 
the Council of Vezelay, stirred all ranks and classes to redeem the Holy 
Land from falling again into the possession of infidels. The emperor, 
Conrad III., yielded to the persuasions of the abbot, and his barons and 
people, who had taken little part in the First Crusade, followed in great 
multitudes. Towns were deserted, and only women and children were 
left, in many instances, to cultivate the land. 

17. The emperor, Manuel Comnenus, received his allies with the same 
plausible but deceitful policy which had distinguished his grandfather, 
Alexis. Bread sold to the hungry armies was mixed with chalk; the 
guides, either by secret order from the emperor or through the bribes of 
the Turks, betrayed the crusaders to their enemies, or led them into the 
deserts to perish with hunger and thirst. The French king, meanwhile, 
was kept inactive by the false assurances of Manuel. When the truth 
became known, Conrad and Louis joined their forces for the march 
through Asia Minor. In a battle on the Maeander, the French were 
completely victorious ; but in a narrow mountain pass between Phrygia 
and Pisidia, they were surprised and overwhelmed by the Mussulmans. 
With great difficulty, owing to the wintry snows, want of food, and the 
refusal of the Greeks to trade, the Franks arrived at Attalia, where the 
King of France embarked for Antioch, leaving the Count of Flanders to 



68 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

convoy the mass of pilgrims for whom no ships could be procured. 
Thousands were slaughtered by the Turks, and the count, seeing the case 
hopeless, escaped by sea, leaving his defenseless comrades to their fate. 

18. The army which had set out from the Ehine and Danube exceeded 
in numbers that of Godfrey of Bouillon, but its leaders arrived at Antioch 
with only a shattered remnant of their forces. Their first enterprise was 
against Damascus, whose power and position threatened the kingdom of 
Jerusalem. The French, the Germans, and the two orders of knights 
vied with each other in deeds of unexampled bravery. The prize was 
within their grasp ; but in disputes between the Count of Flanders and 
the barons of the Holy Land, the golden moment slipped away. The 
Saracens repaired their fortifications, and the crusaders, in sorrow and 
shame, retreated to Jerusalem. The emperor soon returned to Europe, 
and the French sovereigns, with all their knights and gentlemen, followed 
in a year. Thus ended the Second Crusade. 

19. The Fatimite caliph of Cairo was dethroned, A D. 1171, by a 
lieutenant of Noureddin, Sultan of Damascus, who was subject to the 
Abbassid caliph of Bagdad. Saladin, the most formidable foe of Christen- 
dom, was about to throw ofi" his allegiance to Noureddin, when the latter 
died, and the aspiring young vizier made himself Sultan of Syria and 
Egypt. The kingdom of Jerusalem, which had owed its eighty-eight 
years' existence to the mutual enmity of the Saracens and Turks, was the 

first to feel his power. In a two days' battle on the Lake of 
A. D. 1187. ^ ■' 

Tiberias, the Christians were routed, and their king, Guy of 

Lusignan, with the grandmaster of the Templars, the Marquis of Montferrat, 
and others, were prisoners. Life was otfered to the knights of the two orders 
only on condition of renouncing their faith, and 230 met a voluntary mar- 
tyrdom. In consequence of the battle, Tiberias, Acre, Jafia, Csesarea, and 
many other towns fell into Saladin's possession. Tyre held out, under the 
command of Conrad of Montferrat. Jerusalem, after a long and desperate 
contest, was surrendered. 

20. The news of the catastrophe of Tiberias and the fall of Jerusalem 
spread grief throughout Europe. The King of the Two Sicilies was first 
in arms. Philip Augustus of France and Henry II. of England met in 

Normandv to concert measures for the Third Crusade. The 

A. D. 1189-1193. ■' ^ , . T, 1 ^ ,-,.,, 

aged emperor, Frederic Barbarossa,'^ summoned a diet at 
Mentz, in which he himself, with his son and eighty-eight spiritual and 
temporal lords, assumed the cross. Throughout Europe a tenth of all 
movable property, known as the " Saladine Tithe," was levied upon Jews 



* Frederic Barbarossa is the great hero of German romance. Popular tradition says he 
is not even now dead, but sleeping in a cavern near Salzburg, whence he will reappear 
when most needed. 



THi: CRUSADES. 69 

and Christians for the expense of the wars. Passing the Hellespont with- 
out deigning to visit Constantinople, the Emperor Fi'ederic defeated the 
Turks and captured Iconium, their capital ; but he was drowned in 
the Cydnus, apd the hardships of the march reduced the German host 
to one-tenth of its original numbers long before it arrived at Acre. Some 
soldiers of Bremen and Lubec, moved by the sufferings of their comrades 
here, converted their tents into a hospital: and the Duke , ^^ ,,^^ 

' ^ A. D. 1190. 

of Suabia founded the Order of Teutonic Knights, who, 
combining the charities of the Hospitallers with the chivalric vow of the 
Templars, bound themselves to the relief of the sick and the defense of 
the holy places. 

21. The Christians of Palestine had mustered all their forces for the 
recapture of Acre, which, as a strongly fortified port, was an important 
medium of supplies from Europe. Guy of Lusignan, whom Saladin had 
released from prison, perhaps on purpose to divide the counsels of the 
Franks, had at one time 100,000 men at his command ; but the death of 
his wife and children, for whose sake alone the crown had been conferred 
upon him, undermined the authority which his crimes and Aveaknesses of 
character had always rendered irksome to his subjects. His sister-in-law, 
Isabel, a younger daughter of Almeric, married Conrad of Montferrat, 
now Prince of Tyre, a nobleman of great and deserved popularity, who 
became the successful candidate for the crown of Jerusalem. 

22. The siege lagged until the arrival of the French and English 
forces, led by their respective kings. Richard I. had just received the 
crown of England upon the death of his father, Henry II., and the fame 
of his courage and strength gave new spirit to the besiegers. Two years 
from its investment, the city fell, July, 1191. The Duke of Austria 
planted his banner, in common with the French and English chiefs, on 
part of the walls, but Richard tore it down with his own hands and threw 
it into the ditch — an insult which led to a fierce and lasting quarrel 
between the two princes. The King of France, either disgusted by the 
superior fame of Richard, or really ill, as he alleged, soon returned to 
Europe, leaving a large portion of his forces with the Duke of Burgundy 
to serve under the English king. He solemnly swore that he would not 
molest the dominions of the latter during his engagement in the Holy Wars ; 
but, pausing at Rome to be absolved by the Pope from this inconvenient 
vow, he had no sooner set foot in France than he began to plot with 
John — the brother of Richard and regent of England in his absence — 
to possess himself of the French counties and duchies for which Richard 
was his vassal, John being encouraged to assume the English crown as 
the reward of his compliance. Though rumors of these treacherous 
movements reached Palestine, the English king stayed to refortify JaflFa, 
Ascalon, and Gaza, working with his own hands like a common soldier, 



70 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

while bishops and the highest nobles, urged by his example, carried earth 
and mortar, and aided in building the walls. The united army ap- 
proached within sight of Jerusalem where Saladin was posted; but the 
prudence or the treachery of the Duke of Burgundy prevented an attack, 
and Richard, covering his face with a shield, refused, with grief and shame, 
to look upon a city which he was unable to deliver from the infidel. 

23. He consented to the crowning of Conrad of Montferrat as king of 
Jerusalem, indemnifying Guy of Lusignan, the deposed sovereign, by a 
generous gift of Cyprus, which Richard himself had conquered from Isaac 
Comnenus on his way to the Holy Land. Conrad died before his corona- 
tion, and Count Henry of Champagne succeeded to the empty title, which 
he bore, A. D. 1192-1197. On the eve of his departure for Europe, the 
English king signalized his valor by a new exploit, which terrified the 
Saracens and secured for the Christians a more advantageous peace. 
Saladin, by a rapid movement, had possessed himself of Jaffa. The great 
tower still held out, but the patriarch and knights had promised to sur- 
render the next morning, unless succor should arrive. The English 
squadron appeared in time ; Richard was the first to leap on shore, and 
so furious was his onset, that the Mussulmans broke up their camp and 
retreated some miles into the country. Learning with shame that they 
had been driven by only five hundred men, they endeavored in a night 
attack to regain their advantage, but Richard, with ten knights in full 
armor, issuing suddenly from the Christian tents, renewed the panic ; and 
Saladin, now exhausted by the long series of battles, consented to an 
honorable truce of three years and eight months. The sea-coast from 
Tyre to Jaffa was surrendered to the Christians, and pilgrims from Europe 
were guaranteed safety and freedom from imposition in their visits to the 
Holy Sepulcher. The barons whose estates had been conquered by the 
Saracens were indemnified by grants of towns and castles. 

24. Arriving in the Mediterranean, opposite the French coast, Richard 
learned that the feudal lords of that region had resolved to seize him if 
he landed on their territory. Unable to proceed to England in his un- 
seaworthy vessel, he turned toward Germany, and, guided by some pirates, 
landed at Zara. He wished to traverse Germany in disguise, but he was 
identified and imprisoned by his old enemy, the Duke of Austria, who 
surrendered him the next spring to the emperor, Henry VI. Before the 
Diet at Haguenau, Richard was accused of several grave offenses, but he 
defended himself with such eloquence that all but the most prejudiced 
were convinced of his innocence. He received the investiture of the 
kingdom of Aries, and voted as a prince of the empire in the next im- 
perial election. During his enforced absence from England, his brother 
made new efforts to seize the crown, while Philip of France invaded 
Normandy, and both perjured princes offered large sums of money to the 



THE CRUSADES. 71 

emperor, to keep Richard in perpetual captivity or deliver him into their 
hands. The disgraceful bargain might have been sealed, but for the 
indignant protest of the German princes, who compelled Henry VI. to 
accept the ransom offered by the English Parliament for the liberation of 
the king. He was released after long delays, and landed at 
Sandwich fifteen months from his capture and five years 
from his departure for the Holy Wars. The share of the Duke of Austria 
in his ransom-money went to enrich the newly founded city of Vienna. 

25. During the captivity of Eichard, his great enemy, Saladin, had died 
in Palestine, A. D. 1193. His three sons became sultans of Aleppo, 
Damascus, and Egypt; but his brother, Saphadin, ruled the greater part 
of Syria. A fresh crusade was undertaken by the German princes and 
bishops, who were joined on their march by the widowed Queen of 
Hungary. The dukes of Saxony and Lower Lorraine defeated Saphadin 
between Tyre and Sidon, thus liberating many cities and 9000 Christian 
captives. Another victory was followed by the news of the emperor's 
death, and the sudden dejjarture for Germany of all the princes who, by 
vote or influence, could hope to affect the choice of his sue- . ^ „„„ 

' ^ A. D. 119/. 

cessor. Saphadin, rallying his forces, recaptured Jaffa, and 

put every inhabitant to the sword. The great expedition, having thus 

failed, is not commonly numbered among the Crusades. 

26c A Fourth Crusade was proclaimed, A. D. 1200, by Innocent III., 
who imposed upon the clergy throughout Europe a tax for the expenses 
of the war. Princes and people joined their offerings. Those who could 
not go to Palestine in person commuted their service into money, and the 
treasury of the Vatican overflowed. Thibaud, Count of Champagne, 
brother of the late King of Jerusalem, was among the first to assume the 
cross, and a council of French barons met at Soissons to deliberate upon 
the means of fulfilling their vow. The horrors of a land journey into 
Asia were already too well proven ; but the feudal lords had not, like 
Eichard or Philip Augustus, the resource of a national navy. It was, 
therefore, resolved to engage the aid of Venice, then the greatest mari- 
time power in Europe. A treaty was made between the deputies of the 
barons and the Grand Council of the republic for the transportation of the 
troops in Venetian vessels, Venice herself becoming an ally in the war 
and an equal sharer in the prizes. 

27. Soon after Easter, A. D. 1202, the French crusaders crossed Mount 
Cenis and assembled at Venice. Some delay occurring in the prepayment 
of the transportation money, Doge Dandolo secured their aid in the re- 
covery of Zara, on the Dalmatian coast, which had revolted to Hungary. 
Feeble and nearly blind, at the age of ninety-four, the Doge led the 
expedition in person and gained a complete victory. But a more brilliant 
enterprise tempted the French and Venetian arms. Isaac Angelus, Em- 



72 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

peror of the East, had been dethroned, imprisoned, and deprived of his 
eyes by an unnatural brother, whom he had himself redeemed from 
Turkish slavery. His son, Alexis, escaped and found refuge with his 
brother-in-law, the Duke of Suabia. Appearing before the French and 
Italian leaders in their camp at Zara, the envoys of Alexis besought 
their aid in restoring his father to the throne, promising in return the 
cooperation of the Greeks in the conquest of the Holy Land. 

28. The Pope forbade this diversion of forces which were consecrated 
to the deliverance of Palestine; but the knights resolved to turn so far 
aside from their original purpose in order to make good their character 
as champions of justice and avengers of wrong. By two attacks Constan- 
tinople was taken, and the blind old emperor was drawn from his dungeon 
and replaced upon the throne in partnership with his son, Alexis. The 
season being far advanced, the French and Venetians consented to winter 
at Constantinople, and aid to establish more firmly the power which they 
had restored. A brawl between the inhabitants and the Flemish soldiers 
ended in a conflagration, which continued eight days and consumed three 
miles of densely populated dwellings. Alexis, who was disliked by his 
own subjects for his alliance with the Franks, offended the latter by 
vacillation and delay in the payment of the promised subsidies, and a 
fresh war broke out. The guards of the palace set up an emperor of their 
own in the person of Alexis Mourzoufle, a kinsman of the imperial family 
distinguished for his hatred of the Latins. Alexis Angelus was impris- 
oned, and his blind father died of terror. 

29. The French and Venetians now united for a second capture of the 

city. It was taken, and houses, churches, even the tombs 
April, 1204. ^ ,.,-,• \ ■ n ■■,, 

of the emperors, were despoiled in a mad not oi pillage. 

Sculptures preserved from the golden age of Grecian art were destroyed 
by barbarians too ignorant to discern their value ; — if of marble, they 
were hacked to pieces; if of bronze, they were melted into coin or house- 
hold utensils. The Venetians, somewhat more civilized than the French, 
reserved the four bronze horses of Lysippus to adorn their church of 
St. Mark. After paying their long deferred debt to their allies, the 
French had a sum left from their share of the plunder which equaled 
seven times the yearly revenue of England at that time. 

30. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was chosen by the two conquering 
nations to be Emperor of the East. Only one-fourth of the dominion of 
the Comneni fell to his share, the rest being divided be- ^ ^ 1904-126I 
tween the Venetians, Lombards, and French. The Latin 

Empire at Constantinople lasted fifty-seven years, during which the 
Eoman ritual superseded that of the Greeks in the churches, and the laws 
of Jerusalem were imposed upon the people in contempt of the code of 
Basil and Leo VI. Fragments of the conquered empire were erected into 



THE CBUSADES. 73 

rival states by members of the deposed family, who reigned at Nice, at 
Trebizond, and in northern Greece; and in A. D. 1261, Michael Palseo- 
logus, the Nicsean emperor, aided by the mutual rivalries of the Genoese 
and Venetians, -expelled the sixth of the usurpers,* and recovered the 
throne of the Caesars. Most of the Archipelago and Greece proper re- 
mained many years longer in the feudal control of the Latins. 

31. Few of those who took arms for the Fourth Crusade ever reached 
the Holy Land ; but the conquest of Constantinople so alarmed the Mus- 
sulmans, that Saphadin hastened by liberal concessions to secure a six 
years' truce. 

The continuance of the fanatical spirit in Europe was shown by the 
Children's Crusade, A. D. 1211. A superstition gained ground, especially 
in Germany, that the princes and soldiery were forbidden to possess the 
Holy Land because of their sins, and that the great honor was reserved 
for the innocent and the weak. Ninety thousand children are said to 
have assembled from the various towns and hamlets, and, led only by a 
child, to have advanced as far as Genoa. Here they found the sea, of 
which they had never heard, and, separating, some took ship, only to fall 
into the hands of Moorish pirates, and the rest wandered about until they 
perished of hunger or fatigue. Probably not one of the deluded host ever 
reached Palestine, or even regained his home. 

The King and Queen of France and the German emperor had part in the Second Cru- 
sade, which failed through the treachery of the Greeks and the rivalries of the Latins. 
Saladin, becoming Sultan of Egypt, defeated the Christians in the battle of Tiberias, and 
became master of Jerusalem. The emperor, Frederick I., led the van of a Third Crusade- 
soon followed by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of England, who combined their 
forces in a siege of Acre. Guy of Lusignan was deposed and Conrad of Montferrat ap- 
pointed King of Jerusalem. Conrad dying, Henry of Champagne became king. Richard, 
on his return, was imprisoned fifteen months in Germany. In the Fourth Crusade, the 
French and Venetians established a Latin empire at Constantinople. The forces thus 
diverted never reached Palestine. Ninety thousand children perished in an attempted 
crusade, A. D. 12ll. 



* The Latin emperors were as follows : . Baldwin I. died A. D. 1206, a prisoner of the 
Bulgarians. His brother, Henry, reigned, A. D. 1206-1216; and their brother-in-law, Peter 
de Courtenay, was appointed to succeed, but he died in captivity, A. D. 1219, before he 
could reach his capital. Robert de Courtenay reigned seven years, and was succeeded, 
A. D. 1228, by John de Brienne, guardian and father-in-law of Baldwin de Courtenay, the 
sixth and last of the Une. 



74 MEDlyEVAL HltiTORY. 

THE LAST OF THE CRUSADES. 

32. By the death of Almeric of Lusignan and his wife, A. D. 1206, the 
shadowy crown of Jerusalem rested again upon a young 'girl's head; and 
as no nobleman in Palestine was judged worthy to share that slight but 
perilous honor, John of Brienne, a favorite of the King of France, was 
designated as the husband of Mary, daughter of Isabella and Conrad of 
Montferrat. He was accompanied from Europe by three hundred knights, 
the whole contribution of Christendom at that time toward the recovery 
of the Holy Sepulcher. England was absorbed by dissensions between 
her king and barons ; France, by a crusade against her own people, the 
Albigenses of the south ; and Germany, by the struggle between the 
emperor and the Pope for the dominion of Italy. 

33. The new King of Jerusalem appealed for aid, and Innocent III. 
issued a stirring exhortation to all western Christendom. The eloquence 
of his preachers was seconded by the songs of poets, who had not only 
pious, but patriotic motives for urging the foreign expedition. Their 
sovereign and most munificent patron was the Count of Toulouse, with 
whom, as a protector of heretics, the King of France was at war; and 
they naturally desired to divert the assaults of bigotry from their own 

countrymen to the Saracens. The vanguard of the Fifth 

A. D. 1217-1221. ■^ . . * -^ - 

Crusade was led by the nation which had most obstructed 
the first. Andrew II. of Hungary, incited by his father's wish and his 
mother's example, took the cross, and was joined by all the lay and 
spiritual lords of southern Germany. But he accomplished personally 
little more than a multitude of pilgrimages and the collection of innu- 
merable relics; and then, in spite of the entreaties of his allies, he re- 
turned to his impoverished kingdom. 

34. Egypt was now the heart of the Moslem power, and thither a 
second army of Germans directed their efforts. They took the fortress of 
Damietta by assault, and besieged the town. Many obstinate battles were 
fought ; the places of the exhausted besiegers were filled by recruits from 
England and the free cities of Italy ; and at length the city was taken. 
A hideous spectacle met the eyes of the conquerors. Hunger and pesti- 
lence had reduced the 70,000 inhabitants to 3,000, and the survivors were 
more like animated skeletons than like living beings. In the attempt to 
complete the conquest of Egypt, the invaders were in turn vanquished by 
the great natural force which has served in all ages both for the nourish- 
ment and protection of that country. The rising Nile was turned into the 
Latin camp, tents and baggage were swept away, and all communication 
with Damietta cut off. In this perilous position the papal legate was 
reduced humbly to beg for far less favorable terms than he had once 
haughtily rejected. Damietta was surrendered ; the starving hosts of 



THE LAST OF THE CRUSADES. 75 

Christendom were fed from the granaries of the Sultan, and permitted to 
march into Syria. 

35. The emperor, Frederic II., had been excommunicated for his delay 
in joining the crusade, and when in A. D. 1227 he at length embarked, 
he was excommunicated again for presuming to go without permission. 
He was welcomed, however, by the Teutonic knights, and cautiously joined 
by the Hospitallers and Templars. His personal influence effected more 
than even the battle-ax of Coeur de Lion; for Jerusalem, Jaffa, Bethle- 
hem, and Nazareth were ceded to the Christians. Accompanied only by 
his courtiers and the Teutonic knights, Frederic crowned himself in the 
Church of the Holy Sepulcher, since no priest would perform that office. 
John of Brienne, with the hand of his daughter, Violante, had conferred 
upon the emperor his own right to the crown of Jerusalem ; but returning 
to Europe he did not hesitate, in the service of the Pope, to ravage the 
Italian territories of his son-in-law. 

36. The emperor being thus recalled from Palestine, the truce which he 
had made was disregarded, and on one occasion 10,000 pilgrims were 
massacred on the road to Jerusalem. The Templars sustained a severe 
defeat upon the death of the Sultan of Aleppo, with whom they were at 
peace. Every commandery in Christendom hastened to send reinforce- 
ments ; a fresh crusade was announced by the Council at 

' ■' A. D. 1234. 

Spoleto, and the new orders of Dominican and Franciscan 
monks became the bearers of its decrees to all parts of Europe. The 
purpose was, as before, to fill the coflFers of the Church with commutation 
money ; and when Richard, Earl of Cornwall, brother of the English 
king, assumed the cross in sincerity, the Pope forbade his embarkation at 
Dover, and tried to intercept him at Marseilles. On the arrival at Jaffa 
of the English prince and nobles, the Sultan of Egypt sent to propose 
terms of peace. The greater part of Palestine was surrendered to the 
Christians; the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt, and the churches recon- 
secrated. The objects of the expedition having been secured by peaceful 
negotiation, it is by most writers not reckoned in the number of the 
Crusades. 

37. But another foe, equally terrible to Saracens and Christians, now 
appeared from the north-east, in the Tartar hordes expelled from Khoras- 
mia by Zenghis Khan, and who, sweeping over Palestine, captured Jeru- 
salem and murdered most of its inhabitants. The Templars called in 
their Syrian allies, and the combined armies fought for two days a fierce 
battle with the pagans, only to be overthrown and annihilated. The two 
grand masters of the Templars and Hospitallers were slain, and only 
fifty-two knights of all three orders remained alive and free. Barbacau, 
the Tartar chief, was slain, however, in a general battle, and southern Asia 
was relieved for the moment from its panic and distress. 



76 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

38. The Seventh Crusade was led by the good king, Louis IX. of France, 
accompanied by his three brothers, the counts of Artois, Poitiers, and 
Anjou. Having wintered in Cyprus, Louis sailed to Egypt. Damietta, 
though strongly fortified, made no resistance, and all its magazines of 
grain were added to the stock of the crusaders ; but in their march toward 
Cairo, the French were arrested by the canal of Ashmoum. The Count 
of Artois, discovering a ford, led his followers through, routed the Mus- 
sulmans who were posted on the opposite bank, and paused not until he 
had entered the half-deserted town of Massourah. Here the Moslems 
rallied and joined battle in the streets of the town. The concealed in- 
habitants flung stones, boiling water, and burning coals from their roofs 
upon the heads of the assailants. The arrival of the French king pre- 
vented a total rout ; but the death of his brother, with the grand master 
of the Templars and a multitude of knights, paid the penalty of their 
rashness. The retreat was more disastrous than the battle. All the sick 
in the French camp were murdered by the Mussulmans ; the king him- 
self was made prisoner with his two remaining brothers, all the nobles, 
and 20,000 men of lower rank. 

The city of Damietta was surrendered for the king's ransom. He ther 
proceeded to Palestine, where he spent four years in seeking to establish 
that good order which his just and beneficent reign had already conferred 
upon France. No military successes attended his crusade. The death of 
the queen regent recalled him to his own kingdom ; and he sacrificed his 
strong desire to visit Jerusalem to the feeling that a king in arms had no 
right to behold as a pilgrim what he could not possess as a conqueror. 

39. If the Christians of Palestine could have remained at peace among 
themselves, they might have been victorious over the common enemy ; but 
the Italian merchants of the various cities never forgot their rivalries, and 
the jealousy of the two military brotherhoods broke out, soon after the 

Seventh Crusade, into actual war. The knights of St. John 
were the victors in a battle from which scarcely a Templar 
escaped alive. This shameful war was interrupted by the invasion of 
Palestine, by Mamelukes from Egypt (see | 163). Ninety Hospitallers 
held Azotus, and died to the last man in its defense. The Templars at 
Saphoury were forced to capitulate; but, contrary to the terms of sur- 
render, they were afterward required to choose between apostasy and 
death. The knights and garrison, to the number of 600 men, sealed their 
faith with their blood. Jaffa and Beaufort were taken; Antioch was 
surrendered after 17,000 of its people had been slain and 100,000 made 
prisoners. 

40. The news in Europe of the fall of Antioch occasioned an Eighth 
Crusade. Prince Edward of England, with the powerful earls of Pem- 
broke and Warwick, assumed the cross. King Louis of France heartily 



THE LAST OF THE CRUSADES. 77 

joined in the alliance; but his first, and as it proved his last, hostilities 
were directed against the Moors of Tunis. His brother, Charles, Count 
of Anjou, and now King of the Two Sicilies, urged this enterprise for 
selfish reasons, for northern Africa had formerly paid tribute to the Nea- 
politan kingdom. Carthage was taken and plundered, but the army was 
stricken by the plague, which carried off the king and one of his sons. 
Prince Edward arrived the next spring in Palestine, where the name of 
Plantagenet mustered around him all the European forces. Nazareth 
was taken, the Turks were defeated, and a truce for ten 
years was already concluded with the Sultan of Egypt, 
when the death of Henry III. in England required the return of .the 
prince to assume his crown. 

41. The last general effort for the deliverance of the Holy Land, though 
enrolling many great names, was feeble in its execution and disastrous in 
its results, and is not commonly numbered among the Crusades. Eu- 
dolph of Hapsburg, the new Emperor of the West, Michael Palseologus, 
the conqueror and successor of the last Latin Emperor of the East, and 
Charles, the French King of the Two Sicilies, were partners in the enter- 
prise. The latter received from Mary, Princess of Antioch, a surrender 
of her hereditary claim to the crown of Jerusalem. Hugh, King of 
Cyprus, was, however, crowned at Tyre, and disjjutes for this unsubstan- 
tial dignity had their part in defeating the counsels of the allies. Margat 
was captured by the Turks, A. D. 1280. Tripoli, the seat of the last 
remaining barony of the Christians in Asia, was taken, and its people 
murdered or enslaved. Acre was almost the only refuge of Europeans, 
and its several wards or districts were assigned to miserable fugitives from 
tbe lost cities and provinces, who could not forget their jealousies even in 
their common distress. 

42. The Sultan of Egypt mustered all his forces to destroy this last 
nucleus of Christianity in the East, and 200,000 Mamelukes were assem- 
bled for the siege of Acre. The defense was long and obstinate; the 
principal entrance to the city was repeatedly lost and won, and each time 
at great expense of Moslem and Christian blood ; but at length the grand 
master of the Templars, who had been intrusted with the compaand, was 
slain with most of his followers, the town was in flames, and the seven 
knights who alone survived of the Order of St. John, embarked for 
Europe. The unarmed people who could not escape by sea perished on 
the shore. Tyre, Beirtit, and other towns surrendered. All Palestine was 
overrun by the Turks, and, after a few more efforts by the Templars, it 
was abandoned to the Moslem dominion. 

43. Though the hope of delivering the Holy Land lingered several 
centuries in the minds of European princes, and though some private 
enterprises were undertaken with that purpose, no general and public 



78 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

eflfort was renewed. Fifteen years from the fall of Acre, a new crusade 
was proclaimed by Pope Clement V., but few of those who assembled at 
Brindisi knew its object, which was merely to conquer the island of 
Rhodes from the Greeks and Saracens for a permanent residence of the 
knights of St. John. The thousands of Europeans who remained in Pal- 
estine after the withdrawal of the princes and military orders, became so 
mingled with the Mohammedans that no distinction of faith or nationality 
was long to be perceived. The Venetians made a treaty of friendship 
with the Mussulmans of Egypt, and received in Alexandria a church, a 
magazine, and an exchange, where they carried on a disgraceful traffic in 
Georgian and Circassian slaves. The Genoese possessed extensive streets 
and warehouses in Constantinople, with the control of the commerce of 
the Black Sea. 

44. Though failing in their immediate object, the Crusades had most 
important and widely reaching results. Europe, divided by the feudal 
system into a multitude of petty sovereignties, was then first united in 
the only bond that could equally hold kings, nobles, peasants, and 
priests. To defray the cost of their equipment, many princes had sold 
their estates, and these, though usually absorbed by the Church, were 
sometimes bought by common citizens, whose importance as individuals 
and as a class was thus greatly increased. On the crusaders themselves, 
contact with unfamiliar customs had something of its natural effect in 
enlarging the mind and rendering it tolerant of new ideas. Constan- 
tinople, then the grandest and most beautiful city in the world, produced, 
even in its decline, the same effect upon the western, that old Rome had 
upon the northern, barbarians — the impression of a society, though ener- 
vated and decaying, yet far more enlightened and advanced than their 
own. 

45. In the historians who accompanied the several expeditions may be 
seen the contrast between the narrow views of the first crusaders and the 
more courteous and liberal sentiments of their successors. The earlier 
chroniclers describe the " infidel dogs " as monsters, and exult in the 
most inhuman atrocities inflicted upon their defenseless" wives and chil- 
dren; the later writers mention some Mussulmans with admiration, and 
hold up the delicate generosity of Saladin as a rebuke to the barbarity of 
so-called Christians. 

46. Extensive intercourse between the East and the West resulted from 
the Crusades. India and China, long the abode of high civilization, had 
hitherto contributed nothing of importance to the general stock of ideas 
and comforts, owing to their isolation at the extreme circumference of the 
land hemisphere (see Book I., § 2). The consequences of increased com- 
munication will very soon be seen in the adoption of eastern inventions, 
which changed the whole current of European life (|^ 142, 144). Mongol 



THE LAST OF THE CRUSADES. 79 

embassadors were seen in the cities of Europe; and Italians, French, and 
Flemings visited the court of the Grand Khan (§ 155). A Tartar made 
helmets for the French army of Philip the Fair. Venetian merchants — 
among them the father of Marco Polo — resided for years in China and 
Tartary, and established trade with Hindustan. The narrow circle of 
European ideas was widened to include the art and languages of Asia, 
and their influence may be traced in the rise of the modern literatures in 
Europe. 

47. Of the three orders of knights founded during the Crusades, the 
Templars, having no longer use for their ample revenues, became luxu- 
rious, haughty, and dangerous to settled governments; the Hospitallers, 
being on garrison duty against the Turks, successively in Cyprus, Rhodes, 
and Malta, retained their chivalrous and active life ; the Teutonic knights 
found a still more stirring field of combat with the heathenism of northern 
Europe. Prussia was still pagan, and her fierce warriors were even fanat- 
ical in their aversion to Christianity. Herman von Salza, the illus- 
trious grand master, accepted with joy the invitation of the northern 
bishops. Building themselves a fort at Marienburg, the knights began 
their arduous task both by preaching and by fighting. More than half 
a century elapsed before the spirit of resistance was broken, and still 
another century before Christianity was firmly established. 

In the intervals of war the knights redeemed the marshy country by 
embankments, and replaced the salt quagmires with grassy and fertile 
meadows. Meanwhile the order became the rallying point for all the 
chivalry of Germany. It absorbed into itself the Sword Brothers and 
other military fraternities, and was victorious not only in Prussia, but in 
Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania. Its near neighborhood to Pomerania 
and the kingdom of Poland led, however, to disastrous wars, and eventu- 
ally to its decline. 

The Fifth Crusade was occasioned by the appeal of King John of Jerusalem, seconded 
by the preaching of the friars and the songs of the troubadours. Andrew of Hungary led 
the van rather as pilgrim than soldier. Damietta was besieged and taken by the Germans, 
who were, however, defeated on their march toward Cairo. Frederic II. became King of 
Jerusalem, and gained an advantageous peace. Disorders which followed his recall to 
Europe suppressed by Richard of Cornwall, a nephew of Cceur de Lion. A Tartar horde 
overran Palestine, destroying Saracens and Christians alike. In the Seventh Crusade 
Louis IX. of France captured Damietta, but was defeated and taken prisoner near Mas- 
sourah. After his release he spent four years in Palestine. Mutual strife of the military 
orders interrupted by their common foe, the Mamelukes of Egypt. In the Eighth Crusade, 
Louis IX. died at Tunis. Prince Edward of England defeated the Turks and made a ten 
years' truce. Two emperors and a king were defeated in a final effort to deliver Pales- 
tine. Acre was lost and the Holy Land abandoned to the Turks. The effects of the 
Crusades were seen in the increased humanity and culture of the Franks. The Templars 
became rich and indolent; the Hospitallers held the southern outpost of Europe against 
the Turks ; the Teutonic knights conquered and civilized the pagan tribes of the Baltic. 



80 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES. 

48. The two centuries of the Crusades were marked in Europe by a 
long and deadly strife between the emperors and the popes. Henry 

v., though he had been aided by Poije Paschal II. in 

A. D. 1106— 112o. 

his shameful and perfidious rebellion against his own 
father, soon renewed the contest with the Church. Eepairing to Rome to 
assume the imperial crown, he fought a battle within the very precincts 
of St. Peter's with the papal party ; the pope and several cardinals were 
imprisoned, their territories ravaged, and they were released only upon 
the promise of Paschal to perform the coronation, and to resign to Henry 
the investiture of all bishops and abbots in the empire. Upon the death 
of Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, in 1115, Henry again entered Italy to 
claim her territories as fiefs of the empire, nor were the popes dui'ing 
his lifetime able to dispute the possession. 

The nest pontiff, Gelasius II., was seized during the ceremony of his 
consecration by a party of imjjerialists led by Cencio Frangipani, the 
head of a house which for centuries was among the most powerful and 
turbulent in Rome. After being imi3risoned and brutally ill treated, he 
at length escaped into France, where he died at the abbey of Cluny, 
A. D. 1119. His successor, Calixtus II., was a descendant of the kings 
of Burgundy and a kinsman of the emperor. By his wise and dignified 
policy, the dispute concerning investitures was ended in the Concordat of 
Worms, A. D. 1122. Each party made just concessions. The election of 
each new bishop was to take place in the presence of the emperor or his 
■delegate, who should present the scepter in token of the temporal power 
conferred upon the candidate ; but the ring and crozier, the symbols of 
the spiritual office, were to be received only from the Pope. 

49. The Franconian Line ended, A. D. 1125, with the death of Henry 
v., and Lothaire the Saxon was elected emperor. The "great man of the 
North," during this and the two following reigns, was Albert of Anhalt, 
commonly called the Bear. He possessed by inheritance or conquest all 
northern Saxony, with Lusatia and the margravates of Salzwedel and 
Brandenburg, in the latter of which he founded the city of Berlin about 
the same time that Leopold of Austria laid the foundation of Vienna (see 
^ 24). But a greater power than that of either emperor or barons was 
exercised by St. Bernard, the great abbot who from his cloister at Clair- 
vaux ruled all the courts of Europe by mere energy of will. Through 
his influence the emperor, Lothaire, with the kings of France, England, 

and Spain, acknowledged the papal authority of Innocent 
II., who had been elected with unseemly haste almost be- 
fore the death of his predecessor, Honorius 11. The antipope, Anacletus, 
though elected by a more numerous party of cardinals, was of Jewish 



G UELFS AND QHIBELLINES. 81 

descent, and commanded few adherents except in southern Italy and 
Aquitaine. The emperor accompanied Innocent to Rome, and received 
from his hands the imperial crown. But no sooner had Lothaire retired 
than Anacletus returned, and the acknowledged pontiff took refuge in 
Pisa. Several years later the emperor crossed the Alps with an army 
and reinstated the Pope. The antipope died, and the great 
Council at the Lateran, attended by a thousand bishops and 
innumerable abbots, reaflHrmed the dignity of Innocent. 

50. Bernard gained an equal apparent, though less real, success over 
the philosopher, Abelard, the bold thinker who, in asserting the su- 
premacy of reason, seemed to threaten the authority of the Church. He 
was silenced and his writings burnt by the Council of 

^ \ A. D. 1121. 

Soissons ; but the excited throng whom his eloquence had 
drawn to Paris followed him into the wilderness, and around his thatched 
hut of osier twigs grew up a village of similar dwellings, forming a school 
rather than a monastery, to which Abelard gave the name of the Para- 
clete. Still followed by suspicion, he buried himself among the wild 
monks of St. Gildas de Rhuys on the coast of Brittany ; but his books, to 
adopt the words of Bernard, were "flying abroad all over the world;" and 
their author was again summoned before the Council of Sens. He was 
condemned, and a confirmatory decree of Pope Innocent II. forbade all 
discussion of the mysteries of belief. Two years later Abelard died in 
seclusion, A. D. 1142. 

51. Upon the death of the emperor, Lothaire, A. D. 1138, the Hohen- 
staufen family came to the imperial throne in the person of Conrad III. 
Its great rival was the Guelfic house, which possessed not only the duchies 
of Saxony and Bavaria, but the vast hereditary domains of Matilda of 
Tuscany. In a battle near Weinsberg, A. D. 1140, were first heard the 
war-cries of " Guelf " and " Ghibelline," which were yet to ring through 
Europe from Sicily to the Baltic. Though both names belonged to Ger- 
many, the hostility of several successive popes toward the Hohenstaufen 
identified the name of Guelf with the papal, that of Ghibelline with the 
imperial party ; and the whole controversy between the spiritual and civil 
supremacy w^as involved in these watchwords. 

52. Frederic I., the nephew and successor of Conrad, is better known 
by his Italian surname, Barbarossa. No one of the German 

, T , . , , , A. B. 1152-1190. 

pnnces had a higher sense of his dignities and duties as 
emperor of the West. Having received the allegiance of the kings of 
Denmark, Poland, and Hungary, conferred the royal title upon the Duke 
of Bohemia, and made himself King of Upper Burgundy by marriage 
with the heiress, he proceeded to establish his authority over the rebel- 
lious cities of Italy. In his camp at Roncaglia the imperial shield was 
suspended from a high mast over his tent, as an invitation to all who had 
M. H.— 6 



S2 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

suffered wrong to come and claim redress. He received the crown of the 
Lombards at Pavia, and that of the empire at Rome. This 

A. D. 1155. _ ^ 

city had been for nine years under a republican government, 
at whose head was Arnold of Brescia, a disciple of Abelard, a man of 
pure, lofty, and ardent character, and a leader of the first organized 
revolt against the high claims of the papacy as enforced by Hildebrand. 
He had claimed the protection of the emperor in his opposition to the 
Pope, but the two powers combined to crush the popular spirit, which 
was equally hostile to both, and before the arrival of Frederic at Eome 
Arnold was burned and his ashes thrown into the Tiber. 

53. Milan was the leader in the resistance to the emperor. In A. D. 
1158, after a short siege, it was compelled to submit, and the imperial 
eagle was placed upon the spire of its cathedral. A fresh attack upon 
Frederic's officers gave occasion for more severe treatment. The proud 
city was humbled by a siege of three and a half years, when the clergy, 
nobles, and all the citizens marched out to the emperor's camp with 
swords or halters suspended around their necks, and, casting themselves 
upon the ground, begged for mercy. Their lives were spared, but they 
were exiled to four villages, while the walls of their city were leveled 
to the ground. 

54. In his fifth visit to Italy, the emperor was detained seven months 
by a fruitless siege of Alessandria, and was defeated in the battle of 
Legnano, chiefly through the withdrawal from his army of Henry the 
Lion, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony and head of the Guelfs. This great 
prince had increased his territories by successful wars with the Vandals, 
until they reached from the Danube to the Baltic and North seas, and 
far surpassed the hereditary dominions of the emperor himself. He 
aspired to be not only the conqueror, but the civilizer of the northern 
regions, by means of schools, bishoprics, and courts of law. Peasants 
dislodged from their homes in the Netherlands by an influx of the ocean 
were conveyed at his expense into the new provinces of Holstein and 
Mecklenburg, whose marshes and forests were soon transformed by their 
industry into fruitful fields. Munich, the still magnificent capital of 
Bavaria, was founded by Henry the Lion, A. D. 1157. 

55. After Frederic had concluded at Venice, A. D. 1178, an advanta- 
geous peace with the Pope and the Lombard cities, he summoned Henry 
the Lion to answer for himself before the Germanic Diet. Having dis- 
regarded four successive summons, the duke was declared an outlaw, and 
in a two years' war was reduced to humble himself before the emperor and 
beg for pardon. Frederic crowned a long and active life by leading his 
armies against the Turks, and dying in Asia Minor, A. D. 1190. 

56. His son, Henry VI., made himself master of Germany and Italy, 
and raised the power of the Hohenstaufen to its highest pitch, but at the 



G UELFS AND GHIBELLINES. 83 

cost of a series of tyrannical and cruel acts which made the name of 
Ghibelline detested. He gained the kingdom of Naples . ^ , „„ 

A. V, 1190-1197. 

or the Two Sicilies in right of his wife Constantia, the last 
heiress of the Norman kings. At his early death, A. D. 1197, his son Fred- 
eric was but two years of age. He was educated in Italy, and Germany 
was for eighteen years torn by the contentions of the Guelfs and Hohen- 
staufen, the former of whom in the north set up Otho IV., a son of Henry 
the Lion, and the latter in the south, Philip, a brother of the late emperor. 
The Pope Innocent III., one of the greatest and most arbitrary of his 
order, espoused with zeal the Guelfic cause, but on the death of Philip of 
Hohenstaufen Otho became less obedient, and Innocent sent Frederic II. 
into Germany, choosing as the champion of the Church a prince whose 
whole life and reign were to be embittered by its hostility. 

57. The young Hohenstaufen was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, A. D. 
1215, and was universally acknowledged even before the 

' . . ^ ^ A. D. 1215-1250. 

death of his rival. As he grew older, however, his fond- 
ness for Arabic learning and his employment of Saracen troops, — above 
' all, his great possessions in southern Italy which threatened the domin- 
ions of the popes, drew upon him the enmity of Gregory IX., who pro- 
nounced against him the severest censures of the Church, both before and 
during his crusade. (See § 35.) The emperor, returning, expelled the 
papal troops which were overrunning his kingdom of Naples, and devoted 
himself to the improvement of his favorite native land by a better code 
of laws, and by liberal patronage of art, commerce, and literature. The 
works of Aristotle and many of the Greek classics which had been pre- 
served in Arabic versions by the Saracens, were by his order translated 
into Latin. The University of Naples was founded, and the far-famed 
college of medicine at Salerno newly endowed by him. Frederic was the 
most remarkable character of his time, uniting with the knightly energy 
and valor of his German ancestry the refined and subtle intellect of his 
native Italy, and excelling equally as lawgiver, poet, and warrior. 

58. As king of the Two Sicilies he was a vassal of the Church, and his 
dispute with the popes involved all those questions of civil and spiritual 
authority which formed the main strife of the Middle Ages. The Ghib- 
ellines regarded the emperor as ordained of God, and denounced the Pope 
as antichrist for presuming to oppose him. The Guelfs declared that as 
Leo III. had taken the imperial crown from the Greeks and bestowed it 
upon Charlemagne, so every succeeding emperor had owed his power to 
the Pope, who conferred it in the ceremony of coronation. Gregory sup- 
ported Milan and the Lombard cities in their rebellious league against 
the emperor, which was joined even by Henry, king of the Eomans, who 
in his father's absence had been intrusted with the government of Ger- 
many. The undutiful prince ended his days in prison, but Frederic, 



84 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

whose affection had not been lessened by his son's ingratitude, lamented 
his loss in the words of David over Absalom. 

59. In the great battle of Cortenuova, the Lombard League was de- 
,|,^^ feated with enormous loss, and the emperor became master 

of Italy. Pope Gregory launched against him a fifth and 
if possible still more severe sentence of excommunication, depriving him 
of all his kingdoms, and proposing to bestow the imperial crown upon a 
brotlier of the king of France. St. Louis replied to these overtures by re- 
buking the "pride and audacity of the Pope which presumed to disinherit 
and depose a sovereign who had not his equal among Christians." It was 
at this crisis (see § 156) that the Tartar hordes of Zenghis Khan were 
devastating the borders of Germany and Poland ; but the rival heads of 
Christendom had no force to spare against the common enemy. Gregory 
IX. died at nearly a hundred years of age, Innocent IV., the second 
of his successors, fled from Rome and took refuge in Lyons, a city 
which, though belonging to the empire, owned no government but 

that of its archbishop. Here a council was asembled 

A. D. 1245. ^ 

which solemnly deposed Frederic and ordered the German 
princes to proceed to a new election. In accordance with its decree, 
Henry of Thuringia, and after his death, William, Count of Holland, 
were successively raised to the imperial dignity. 

60. The death of Frederic IL, A. D. 1250, was followed by great con- 
fusion. The Ghibellines every-where acknowledged his son Conrad IV. as 
emperor; and after the early death of Conrad, Manfred, another son of 
the great Frederic and of an Italian mother, became regent of Naples. 
Both brothers were excommunicated by Innocent IV., who hastened to 
offer the Sicilian kingdom successively to two English princes, and to 
Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France. During the interreg- 
num in the empire this prince held also the titles of senator of Eome and 
imperial vicar, which with his Neapolitan kingdom gave him the control 

of the entire peninsula. Manfred was defeated and mor- 
A. D. 1266. '^ i 1 . 

tally wounded in the battle of Benevento. His sons died in 

prison, and young Conradin, the son of Conrad IV., was the last of the 

Hohenstaufen. At sixteen years of age he went into Italy to claim his 

inheritance, but he was defeated and captured by Charles of Anjou, who, 

bent upon the utter extermination of the Ghibellines, caused him to be 

beheaded with five of his most faithful friends in the market-place at 

Naples. 

61. The French king and nobles treated the Two Sicilies as a con- 
quered country. But their atrocious tyranny worked its own punishment. 
Conradin upon the scaffold had bequeathed his Italian kingdom to his 
cousin Constance, daughter of Manfred and wife of King Pedro III. of Ar- 
agon. John of Procida, a noble and physician who had been deeply in-' 



G UELFS AND GHIBELLINES. 85 

jured by the French, traveled in disguise from the court of Barcelona to 
that of Constantinople, and among the Ghibellines of Italy, 
every-where plotting vengeance against the usurper. At 
length in one eventful night, known as the "Sicilian Vespers," all the 
French in Palermo were massacred. Eight thousand of their nation per- 
ished in a few days, and the island of Sicily became an independent 
kingdom under Pedro III. of Aragon. The Pope — Martin IV"., a slave of 
Charles of Anion — declared Aragon itself to have been , ^ 

•* *= A. D. 1285. 

forfeited by Pedro, and bestowed it upon Charles of Valois, 
a nephew of the king of Naples. But in the same year, died the four chief 
actors in the dispute: Martin IV., Charles of Anjou, Philip III. of 
France, and Pedro III. of Aragon. 

62. After the death of Conrad IV., in 1254, and of his rival, William 
in 1256, no German prince would accept the imperial crown. One party 
therefore, offered it to Alfonso the Wise of Castile, who never visited Ger- 
many for his coronation, while the other elected Richard of Cornwall 
brother of Henry III. of England, who was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle 
in 1257; but his title, ''King of the Romans," brought with it no real 
power, and the period from A. D. 1256 to 1273 is known as the Interreg' 
num. The choice of the princes then fell upon Rudolph of . _, i ^o 
Hapsburg, a brave knight who had won the highest esteem 
by his noble and virtuous character, but who was so poor that even when 
emperor, he sometimes mended his doublet with his own hands. His en- 
ergetic measures soon restored the honor of the imperial name. Ottocar, 
the powerful and rebellious king of Bohemia, was defeated and slain in 
battle, and his provinces of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola en- 
riched the house of Hapsburg. 

Continued strife between emperors and popes, reclamation of waste or pagan countries 
on the Baltic by the great German princes, and the foundation of three royal capitals, 
belong to the period of the Crusades. Names of Guelf and Ghibelline, the former be- 
longing to the Bavarian dukes, the latter to the Hohenstaufen, became watchwords of 
the papal and imperial parties. Frederic I. received feudal homage from kings of Den- 
mark, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, and himself added the crown of Burgundy to 
those of Germany, Italy, and the Empire. He aided to suppress the Republic at Rome 
by the death of Arnold of Brescia, and crushed the rebellion of the Lombard cities by 
the destruction of Milan. He died during his crusade. Henry VI. conquered the king- 
dom of Naples and established his power throughout Germany and Italy. During the 
minority of his son Frederic, Otho of Saxony and Philip of Hohenstaufen were rival 
emperors. Frederic II. having received the imperial crown from Innocent III. was ever 
after the object of papal persecution, which stirred against him the rebellion of the Lom- 
bard League and even of his own son, and finally procured the election of rival empe- 
rors, Henry of Thuringia and William of Holland. Frederic was succeeded by his son, 
Conrad IV., who died A. D. 1254. Nearly twenty years interregnum followed, during 



86 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

which Alfonso of Castile and Richard of Cornwall bore the imperial name without the 
power. Manfred the brother and Conradin the son of Conrad IV. both perished in 
Italy, the one in the battle of Benevento and the other by order of Charles of Anjou, to 
whom the Pope had given the kingdom of Naples. The tyranny of the French was 
avenged by the "Sicihan Vespers" and by the revolt of Sicily to the House of Aragon, 
now sole representative of the Hohenstaufen. The interregnum in Germany was ended 
by the election of Rudolph of Hapsburg. 

Great men of this period: Bernard of Clairvaux; Abelard; the Emperors Frederic 
I. and II.; Arnold of Brescia; Innocent III. — next to Hildebrand the greatest of the 
popes ; Albert the Bear of Anhalt ; Henry the Lion of Bavaria ; Ottocar king of Bohemia. 



England and France, A. D. 1100-1285. 

63. In England during the same period, the two great contests for 
civil and religious independence were in progress; namely, the strife of the 
kings with the popes for the appointment of prelates, and that of barons 
and kings for personal and feudal rights. Two sons* and a grandson of 
the Conqueror completed the elder Norman line which had governed 

England, A. D. 1066-1154. The Angevin house of Planta- 

A. D. 1154-1189. ^ ' ^ 

genet then succeeded in the person of Henry II., whose 
mother, the Empressf Matilda, daughter of Henry I. and granddaugh- 
ter of the Conqueror, had vainly contested with her cousin Stephen the 
possession of the crown. Beside the throne of England, Henry inherited 
in France the great fiefs of Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou, and 
with his Queen, Eleanor, the discarded wife of Louis VII. of France, 
he received Aquitaine and Poitou. His French dominions thus exceeded 
by far the immediate possessions of the French king himself, who might 
well tremble in receiving the homage of his powerful vassal. 

64. Crowned at the age of twenty-one, Henry Plantagenet set himself 

with vigor to the work of substituting justice and order for the lawless 

violence of Stephen's disputed reign. Ireland was added by conquest to 

his dominions, and the captive king of Scotland acknowledged the feudal 

supremacy of the English king. The long conflict between Church and 

State came to its height in the seven years' quarrel between Henry and 

his former chancellor and confidential friend, Thomas a Becket, whom he 

had raised to the primacy. It ended only with the murder of Becket at 

the altar of his cathedral church at Canterbury, but the 
A. D. 1170. . . *' J 

victory remained with the prelate, who was worshiped as a 

saint, while the king was forced by the superstition of the age, perhaps 

by his own, to make a penitential pilgrimage to the tomb of his victim, 

where he humbly confessed his fault and submitted to be scourged. 



♦William II. (Rufus) A. D. 1087-1100; Henry I.— 1135; Stephen of Blois-1154. 
tHer first husband was the Emperor Henry V., who died A. D. 1125. She then mar- 
ried Geoffrey of Anjou. 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 87 

65. Richard I., the valiant son and successor of Henry, spent only four 
months in England of the ten years (A. D. 1189-1199) that he wore its 
crown. The reign of his wicked and worthless brother John 

^ A. D. 1199-1216. 

was productive of two great benefits to the kingdom. The 
loss of most of his French dominions turned the attention of his suc- 
cessors to their duties as English sovereigns, while it heightened the feel- 
ing of nationality in their vassals, and the Great Charter, wrested by the 
Norman barons from the incompetent John, was the first guarantee 
of constitutional freedom, not only for themselves but for the Anglo- 
Saxon race. The kingdom was five years under an interdict, owing to 
the resistance of John to the investiture of Stephen Langton as arch- 
bishop of Canterbury ; and even this harsh measure failing to move his 
obstinacy. Pope Innocent III. called upon all Christian princes to join in 
a crusade to dethrone him. 

66. Philip II. of France who had already seized the greater part of the 
continental dominions of John, willingly mustered his forces for the con- 
quest of England ; but at this point the humbled and terrified king 
yielded more than was asked of him, by surrendering his kingdoms of 
England and Ireland to the Holy See, to be held by himself only upon 
payment of homage and tribute as a vassal. The wrath of both prel- 
ates and barons at this sacrifice of the national dignity led them to as- 
semble in arms and demand the Great Charter, which was signed June 
15, 1215, at Eunnimede, on the Thames. The faithless king lost no 
time in breaking his oath and ravaging his kingdom with an army of 
Flemish mercenaries. The barons then offered the crown to Prince 
Louis of France, who swore to rule according to the laws established at 
Eunnimede; but his triumphs ceased with the sudden death of John 
and the appointment of the Earl of Pembroke, the chief promoter of 
the Charter, as protector of the kingdom. 

67. Henry III. was as weak and nearly as wicked as his father. 
Fifty-six years of misrule were partly compensated by re- 

, ^ , . ., ^ A. D. 1216-1272. 

newed guarantees oi the privileges of the people, which 
they extorted from the ever recurring necessities of their king. In 1258 
twenty-four barons formed themselves into a commission for the better 
government of the realm. At their head was Simon de Montfort, Earl 
of Leicester, one of the greatest men of his age. Seven years of civil 
war were the result. In the battle of Lewes the barons were triumph- 
ant, and the king, his brother Eichard, king of the Eomans, Prince 
Edward, and his cousin Prince Henry were made prisoners. In the 
name of the king, Simon de Montfort summoned the first English 
parliament properly so-called, for it included two knights from each 
county, two burghers from each city or borough, with eleven prelates 
and twenty-three peers. In the battle of Evesham, A. D. 1265 Prince 



88 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

Edward, having escaped from prison, was victorious, the king was set 
free, and De Montfort and his son Henry were slaiu. 

68. Edward I. was recalled from Palestine (§ 40) to assume his crown. 
His chief aim was to unite the island of Great Britain under one scepter 
by the conquest of Wales* and the marriage of his son with the heiress 
of Scotland. The death of the latter, A. D. 1290, delayed for three 
hundred years the union of the kingdoms, and the Scottish crown was 
left to be disputed by thirteen claimants. Edward, as lord-paramount, 
decided in favor of John Baliol, and five years later, upon some act of 
disobedience, he placed the kingdom under the regency of one of his own 
barons. William Wallace organized a revolt, A. D. 1297, defeated the 
English at Stirling Bridge, and became guardian of Scotland in the 
name of King John. He was, however, defeated at Falkirk, and after 
seven years guerrilla warfare was taken and executed at London, A. D. 
1305. 

69. France, during the Crusades, underwent still greater changes. At 
the commencement of the period the royal domain included only five 
cities with their territories, and the road between Paris and Orleans was 
controlled by a rebellious noble. The prudence of the Abbot Suger, the 
first of the great churchmen who have governed France, increased the 

power of the crown and depressed that of the nobles. 

Louis Vl.f at his suggestion protected the leagues of the 
common people against the barons ; and thus arose the communes or free 
charters of the towns. The cities of southern France, as of Spain and 
northern Italy, had never lost the municipal privileges bestowed by 
the Romans. They asserted those privileges during the twelfth cen- 
tury by choosing their own magistrates and arming for the common 
defense. 

70. Louis VII. multiplied the communal charters, protected mer- 

. _ „ chants, and founded "new cities"! for the reception of 

A. D. 1137-1180. ' '^ ^ 

serfs who escaped from the tyranny of their masters. On 

his return from the Holy Land (^§ 16-18) he parted from his Queen, 
the Duchess of Aquitaine, who very soon transferred her vast domains 
to her second husband, Henry II. of England. The life-long enmity 
thus occasioned between the two kings, led Louis to shelter the ex- 
iled primate, Thomas a Becket, and even to aid and abet the rebellion 
of Queen Eleanor and her three sons against Henry. 



*His son, afterwards Edward II., was the first English prince of Wales. 

t Henry I. (A. D. 1031-1060) and Philip I. (—1108) were the third and fourth of the house 
of Capet. 

t Hence the great number of French towns still bearing the names Villeneuve and 
Villefrandie. 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 89 

71. Philip Augustus both enlarged and consolidated his kingdom by 
the depression of the great nobles and the conquest of all . -^ „„„ , „ 

'■ ° A. D. 1180-1223. 

except Aquitaine of the continental possessions of the 
English kings. His war against his own vassals in the Mediterranean 
provinces was only too successful. The Count of Toulouse — the almost 
independent sovereign of the most civilized country in Europe — refused 
to persecute his non-Catholic subjects, to whose opinions he was indif- 
ferent, but whose skillful industry and orderly habits made them good 
and valuable members of the community. The Pope thereupon pro- 
claimed a crusade against Eaymond VI. and his people, promising to 
all who would join it the same indulgences as if they were fighting against 
the Saracens, beside the more substantial reward of a share in the lands 
to be conquered. 

The most active and fierce of the crusaders was Simon de Mont- 
fort, lord of great estates in Normandy — the father of that Simon, Earl 
of Leicester in England, who led the English barons in their opposi- 
tion to Henry III., see § 67. He bore for years, by the authority of the 
Lateran Council, the title of Count of Toulouse. The war raged from 
A. D. 1208 to 1229. Every-where fertile fields were laid waste, towns 
and villages depopulated, the refined diversions of music and poetry sup- 
pressed, together with the heresy which had sprung from intellectual free- 
dom ; and the very language of the Provengals, the first in modern Europe 
to be improved by a native literature, fell into a sudden and fatal decline. 
On the part of the king, this crusade against the Albigenses was perhaps 
less a religious than a political movement. It was a struggle of feudal 
with municipal France — of German with Roman institutions. 

72. The war continued through the short reign of Louis VIIL, A. D. 
1223-1226 ; and was ended during the minority of Louis IX. by the 
submission of Raymond VII. of Toulouse. The greater part of his es- 
tate was annexed to the crown, and by the Mediterranean ports thus 
gained France became an important maritime power. The 

. _P -r • T^r ■ A' D- 1226-1270. 

reign oi Louis IX. is a new era in French history — an era 
in which the regular and equal action of law began to replace the tur- 
bulent misrule of the feudal ages. The baronial courts were suppressed; 
uniform coins and statutes prevailed throughout the realm. To prevent 
delays of justice, the king held courts in the open air — sitting under 
a tree in the forest of Vincennes — whither any man might bring his 
suit without ceremony. The sovereign appeared in his true character 
as the refuge of the oppressed, the source of justice, and avenger of 
wrong. The separation of France and England was made complete by 
a law of Louis IX., A. D. 1244, forbidding any vassal of his to hold 
estates under another crown. Before this, almost every English baron 
had fiefs in France, and might be punished by one king for lawful serv- 



90 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

ices rendered to another. The two crusades of Louis have already been 
described. (|§ 38-40.) 

73. His son Philip III., by inheritance or marriage, added to his 

dominions the counties of Charapaarne, Toulouse, Valois, and 

A. D. 1270-1280. ID' ) ) 

Alengon, and the kingdom of Navarre. The chief events 
of his reign were connected with the claims of his uncle, Charles of 
Anjou, upon the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and those of his brother, 
Charles of Valois, upon Aragon. (See § 61.) The policy begun by the 
justice of St. Louis was continued by the ambition of his successors ; 
and the 102 years dating from the beginning of his reign have been 
called the Age of the Lawyers — a century in which the legal powers of the 
crown subordinated without destroying the claims of the feudal chiefs. 

74. During the crusades, notwithstanding the great waste of blood 
and treasure, many arts flourished, and architectui'e especially achieved 
some of its grandest works. The great cathedrals were the work of a 
society of masons which existed throughout Europe, the members being 
known to each other and distinguished from the uninitiated by peculiar 
signs and customs. Poetry also received a new impulse from the stir- 
ring incidents of the times; and the troubadours of Aragon and Prov- 
ence, the minnesingers of Germany, and the poets of the Sicilian court 
of Frederic II. ushered in the dawn of modern literature. All the Sua- 
bian emperors were themselves poets. The Nibelungen Lied — the great 
German epic of the migration of nations — as well as the Book of Heroes, 
received from the house of Hohenstaufen the same service which Homer 
owed to Pisistratus. Their scattered portions were collected, edited, and 
made accessible to scholars. 

75. The Church partook in great measure the movements of the age. 
On one side we find warrior-bishops, like Christian of Mentz, building 
fortifications, leading armies, storming or besieging towns; on the other, 
kings of the cloister, like Bernard of Clairvaux, who, refusing worldly 
rank for themselves, and blinding their eyes even to the splendors of the 
natural world, exercised almost absolute control over the turbulent spirits 
which governed secular affairs. The monastic life received a fresh 
impulse from the multiplication of new orders. The monastery of 
Monte Cassino in southern Italy, (founded by St. Benedict of Nursia, 
A. D. 528.) was the cradle of the first great organization of this kind. 
The Benedictines have benefited the world by the diligent scholarship 
which led them during the dark ages to preserve and multiply copies of 
the treasures of ancient literature ; and, since the invention of printing, 
to compile great historical works such as require far more than one life- 
time for their achievement. 

76. The order of the Carthusians was instituted by St. Bruno, A. D. 
1084, upon a desolate rock near Grenoble, with a discipline as severe and 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 91 

unattractive as its place of abode. Four years later was founded 
the monastery of Citeaux, which became the parent of 3600 similar 
convents of its own Cistercian order. The Carmelites, founded in Pales- 
tine, migrated to Europe in 1238, and assumed both the rule and name 
of St. Augustine. All these and other orders grew to be rich and pow- 
erful, both by the gifts of the great and by the sale or pledge to them of 
the estates of Crusaders. Many of these proprietors never returned; 
others came, broken with disappointment, to bury themselves in the 
cloister and leave their property to the brotherhood. The wealth and 
luxury of the monks became a reproach. As a protest against their 
corruption, two orders of mendicants, one founded A. D. 1210, by the 
Italian, Francis of Assisi, and the other in 1216, by Dominic Guzman, 
a Spaniard, bound themselves to acquire no property beyond the walls 
of their monasteries, and to subsist only by begging. Choosing a life 
of intense activity instead of the indolence of the cloisters, they were 
the first of all the brotherhoods to devote themselves to preaching. 
Speaking all languages, penetrating all countries, they constituted the 
standing army of the popes, to whom alone they rendered obedience, 
and whose jDOwer they contributed immeasurably to increase and prolong. 

77. The reign of Innocent III. was equally signalized by the rise of 
the Inquisition, a secret tribunal charged with the detection 

. ^ ^ ^ A. D. 1198-1216. 

and punishment of heresy, apostasy, and all crimes against 
religion. Among the first inquisitors was the founder of the Dominicans ; 
and these friars, with their secular brethren, the Familiars of the Holy 
Office, planted the terrible institution in France, Italy, and Spain. The 
accused person was snatched secretly from his home, and either never 
appeared again in the light of day, or only on his way to the flames. 
No counsel was allowed, nor any reading of the articles of accusation, 
which might be wholly new to the prisoner. To be suspected was almost 
certainly to be condemned. The tribunal first received its complete 
organization at the Council of Toulouse, A. D. 1229. It continued in 
southern Europe and the Spanish colonies in America until the begin- 
ning of the present century, when advancing civilization put an end to 
its barbarities. In the Spanish countries alone, more than half a mill- 
ion of persons had suffered in various ways, of whom more than 32,000 
were burned at the stake. 

78. No less characteristic of the Middle Ages was the Vehm-gericht, or 
secret secular tribunal, which established itself in Westphalia, but ex- 
tended its power throughout Germany. Its members numbered several 
thousands of all classes, who could prove themselves "free, irreproacha- 
ble, and honorable men ;" they were bound by solemn oaths of secrecy, 
and recognized each other by signs known only to themselves. If any 
accused person failed after three citations to appear before them, he was 



92 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

sentenced* to death, and each member of the court was bound to pursue 
him until his punishment was accomplished. Even if he were the 
father or a brother of a member, it was forbidden to warn him; and 
wherever he was found — in his house, on the high road, or in the 
forest — he must be hanged to the nearest tree or post. As a proof that 
he was not a victim of lawless violence, his property was left untouched, 
and a "knife was planted near him in the ground. However irregular 
such a tribunal may appear, it was a powerful supporter of justice in a 
turbulent age, when the slow and uncertain action of other courts was 
wholly inadequate to the suppression of violence. It was able either 
to inflict instant and terrible punishment, or to track the offender to 
the most obscure and distant retreat. Its authority, though for the last 
two centuries confined to Westphalia, was only legally repealed in 
A. D. 1811. 

Elder Norman line of English kings is succeeded by the Plantagenets descended from 
Count Geoffrey of Anjou. Henry II. has great dominions on the continent, for which he 
is vassal to King of France; conquers Ireland and enforces his suzerainty over Scotland; 
quarrels with Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, but after Becket has been murdered, 
does penance at his tomb. Eichard I. is chiefly known as a crusader. John loses his 
French inheritance ; is excommunicated for opposing the investiture of Langton as pri- 
mate ; incurs the wrath of the barons by surrendering his kingdom to the Pope, and is 
forced to sign Magna Charta. Henry III. renews privileges which his father has granted; 
in his name the first English parliament is summoned. War with the barons led by 
Simon de Montfort. The latter victorious at Lewes; defeated and slain at Evesham. 
Edward I. conquers Wales and controls Scotland. 

Rise of free cities in France under Louis VI. and VII. ; conquest by Philip II. of Nor- 
mandy, Maine, Touraine, and Anjou ; crusade against the Albigenses lasts from his 
reign to that of his grandson. Age of the Lawyers begins with Louis IX., the most 
just of French kings. Several important provinces added to the kingdom by Philip 
III. Flourishing period of mediseval art and literature. Increased power of tlie 
Church; foundation of Carthusians, Cistercians, Carmelites, and the Mendicant Or- 
ders of St. Dominic and St. Francis. Rise of the Inquisition. Supremacy of the Vehm- 
gericht in Germany. 



* The form of the sentence is curious as showing the ideas of the time : " As now N. 
has been cited, prosecuted, and adjudged before me, . . . who is so hardened in evil 
that he will obey neither honor nor justice, and despises the highest tribunal of the 
Holy Empire, I denounce him here by all the royal power and force, as is but just. . . 
I deprive him, as outcast and expelled, of all the peace, justice, and freedom he has 
ever enjoyed since he was baptized; and I deprive him henceforward of the enjoyment 
of the four elements which God made and gave as a consolation to man, and denounce 
him as without right, without law, Avithout peace, without honor, without security : I 
declare him condemned and lost, so that any man may act towards him as with any 
other banished criminal. . . . And I herewith curse his flesh and blood, and may his 
body never receive burial, but may it be borne away by the wind, and may the ravens 
and crows and wild birds of prey consume and destroy him. And I adjudge his neck to 
the rope, and his body to be devoured by the birds and beasts of the air, sea, and 
land ; but his soul I commend to our dear Lord God, if he will receive it." 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 93 



Period II. From the Last Crusade to the Discovery of America. 
A. D. 1291-1492. 

79. The two centuries following the Crusades were a period of rapid 
development throughout Europe. New thought revolutionized old opin- 
ions ; powers which had only existed in the germ sprang to maturity ; 
the learning of the ancient world was revived at the fortunate moment 
when western genius was able to be stimulated by it, not depressed into 
lifeless imitation ; the art of printing came to diffuse among the middle 
and lower classes the treasures thus amassed; and the discovery of a 
hitherto unknown continent gave a new direction and unlimited scope 
to the quest of wealth, knowledge, and dominion. 

80. We glance briefly at the condition of the several nations of Europe 
at the close of the thirteenth century. The Emperor Rudolph of Haps- 
burg was succeeded, A. D. 1292, by Adolph of Nassau, who was in turn 
deposed by the electors, defeated and slain by a new emperor, Albert of 
Austria, eldest son of Eudolph, A. D. 1298. Albert, unlike his father, was 
a stern and overbearing tyrant. His cruelties excited revolt in his 
own provinces of Austria, Styria, and Switzerland, and while he was 
marching to execute vengeance upon the latter, he was murdered by his 
nephew, John of Hapsburg, whom he had unjustly deprived of his 
estates. 

81. France was ruled by a grandson of St. Louis, Philip the Fair, 
whose constant want of money led him to ruthless persecutions of Jews, 
Churchmen, Flemish merchants, and finally of the Knights Templars. 
His quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII. will soon be described. England, 
under the vigorous reign of Edward 1., was extending her power over 
Scotland, and protecting the Flemings against the French king, their 
feudal lord. The Spanish peninsula contained the five Christian king- 
doms of Aragon, Navarre, Castile, Leon, and Portugal, beside the two 
Moorish sovereignties of Cordova and Granada. Italy was divided 
between the kingdom of Naples, the States of the Church, and the free 
cities of Tuscany and Lombardy, which, while owing a nominal allegiance 
to the emperor, were usually governed by a podesta or some chief citi- 
zen, resembling the "tyrants" of ancient Greece. The Neapolitan king- 
dom was still in dispute between the houses of Anjou and Aragon, the 
latter having inherited the claims of the Suabian family. Frederic of 
Aragon, the bravest prince and ablest captain of his time, defended 
Sicily many years against the entire Gallic and papal force ; and even 
against his own elder brother. King James of Aragon, after the latter had 
made peace with the French. By a treaty in 1302, Sicily and the smaller 
islands were erected into a separate kingdom, called Trinacria, for Fred- 



94 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

eric and his descendants, while the House of Aujou retained only the 
peninsular dominion. 

82. Celestin V., a pious hermit but incompetent sovereign, was per- 
suaded (A. D. 1294) to resign his tiara, by the Cardinal of Anagni, who 
himself became Pope with the name of Boniface VIII. Under this 
turbulent and ambitious prince, the papacy reached its highest preten- 
sions, only to fall, at his violent and disgraceful death, into a long 
humiliation and depression. Over the greatest monarchs in Christendom, 
Boniface claimed the authority of a Roman Censor, to punish and even 
depose for private and personal oflfenses. Over the smaller kingdoms 
of Naples, Sicily, Aragon, Portugal, Hungary, Bohemia, Scotland, and 
England, he asserted the absolute power of a feudal chief, having bought 
a recognition of his supremacy by favoring one or another of rival claim- 
ants to those thrones, or extorted it from a weak sovereign by terror of 
spiritual penalties. (§ 66.) In the King of France, Boniface met a 
nature as proud and unyielding as his own. After a violent war of 
words, the pontiff was attacked and seized in his native city, Anagni, 
by Sciarra Colonna, a Eoman prince whose family he had bitterly 
wronged, and William of Nogaret, a French lawyer whose ancestors had 
been slain by the Inquisition. Overcome by rage at this humiliation, 
he died a few weeks later at Rome, A. D. 1303. 

83. In the north of Europe the petty principalities of the Baltic had 
become consolidated into the three modern kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, 
and Denmark. Christianity had slowly but surely conquered the ancient 
paganism, and with its milder teachings, letters and other arts of civili- 
zation had been introduced by the Benedictine monks. Waldemar II. 
(A. D. 1202-1241) governed not only Denmark and Sweden, but a great 
part of the present kingdom of Prussia. Before his death his empire 
fell to pieces, and its southern territories were soon conquered by the 
Teutonic knights. 

84. Within twenty years from the signing of Magna Charta in Eng- 
land, the Hungarian barons extorted from their king, Andrew II., a 
similar document called the "Golden Privilege," which included even 
the right of armed resistance to the sovereign, in case of his failure to 
fulfill his obligations. With his grandson the family of Arpad became 
extinct in the male line in A. D. 1301, and the crown, becoming elect- 
ive, was conferred in expectancy upon Charles of Naples, a descend- 
ant by his mother's side from the old Hungarian kings. Charles died 
before his accession; but intercourse with Italy had meanwhile been 
productive of great advance in the civilization of Hungary. The wastes of 
Transylvania were converted into fruitful fields and thriving villages by 
the labor of multitudes of Flemish and German colonists. Bohemia, though 
lately one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe, was at tliis time 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 95 

depressed by the losses and death of King Ottocar ; while Poland, not 
yet recovered from the ravages of the Mongols, and further weakened by 
several disputed reigns, gave no promise of the greatness it was soon to 
attain under Ladislas I. and Casimir the Great. 

85. Upon the death of Pope Benedict XI., the successor of Boniface 
VIII., the King of France secured the election of Bertrand de Goth, 
a Gascon, and thus a subject of the King of England, but, as it 
proved, the obedient servant of Philip himself. He assumed the name 
of Clement V., and removed the seat of the papacy from 

' ^ ^ '' A. D. 1309-1878. 

Rome to Avignon,* where it remained nearly seventy 
years, in what was called by Italian writers of the time a Babylonish 
captivity. With this Pope, Philip IV. concerted his scheme for the ex- 
tinction of the Templars. The admiration of Christendom during two 
centuries had loaded the order with wealth ; and instead of nine poor 
knights, 15,000 of the most splendid chivalry in the world excited at once 
the fear and envy of the king. Their fortresses were among the strong- 
est in Europe, and by the terms of their institution they were independ- 
ent equally of the civil and the ordinary ecclesiastical power, owning 
allegiance only to the Pope. Even from him a sentence of excommuni- 
cation could not strike the order ; but when surrounding territories 
suffered under an interdict, their church-bells sounded, the dead were 
buried, and the living absolved as usual. 

86. Three quite incompatible charges of idolatry, atheism, and Mo- 
hammedanism were laid against them ; but their real crimes were their 
power and wealth. Their dealings with the Saracens had doubtless worn 
away the prejudices with which the Holy Wars began ; and the Temp- 
lars — mostly men of generous breeding— had learned to treat with liber- 
ality a foe whose mental culture they could not but respect ; but in a 
bigoted age tolerance is a crime, and they were accused of yielding equal 
reverence to Mohammed and to Christ. The witnesses, most of them 
renegades from the order, were tortured, and the confessions wrung from 
tliem by insufferable agony seemed to admit the justice of the accusations. 
But when these confessions were read in open court, many of the sufferers 
indignantly denied their truth, and were sentenced to be burned as apos- 
tates : 113 thus suffered in Paris alone, and the number in the provinces 
can not be estimated. Jacques de Molay, the Grand Master, was im- 
mured seven years in a dungeon, until bis intellect became disordered by 
long suffering and deprivation of light. His defense was then refused, 
and he was sentenced with two companions to the stake. From the midst 



* Avignon with its territory, the Venaissin, had been a papal possession since 1273, 
being the share claimed by Gregory X. of the spoils of the Albigenses. It belonged ta 
the popes till 1789. n 



96 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

of the flames he summoned the Pope and the King of France to meet 
him ere long at the bar of God. Both died within the year 1314. 

87. England, governed by the weak and worthless Edward II., a son- 
in-law of Philip, followed the example of France in the suppression of 
the Templars. In the Neapolitan kingdoms and the Papal States similar 
confessions were obtained by torture ; but in northern Italy most of the 
witnesses were firm iu asserting the innocence of the Knights, and in 
Spain and Germany they were triumphantly acquitted. Their lands, 
however, were transferred to the Knights of St. John, while their movable 
treasures went to enrich the several sovereigns, especially their arch per- 
secutor, the king of France. In Portugal alone a remnant of the order 
still exists, under the name " Chevaliers of Christ." 

88. The rise of the Swiss Eepublics is among the important e,vents of 
the beginning of the fourteenth century. The germ of their confedera- 
tion may be found in the alliance of the three Forest Cantons, Schwytz, 
Uri, and Unterwalden, August 1, 1291 ; but it is usually dated from the 
Conjuration of Riitli, A. D. 1308; in which three men from the same 
three cantons, swore to each other under the open heaven to live and die 
for the defense of fatherland. Each chose ten confidants from his own 
canton, and the thirty-three repeated the oath. The people exhausted 
by the oppressions of Albert of Austria seized all his bailifis and their 
satellites, and drove them from the country. The death of the emperor 
occurred on his march into Switzerland, but his son Leopold exacted a 
pitiless and bloody vengeance from the peasants of the Waldstatten, 
most of whom had no pai't in the oath of Riitli. He was defeated by a 
few hundred men in the narrow pass of Morgarten, November, 1315, 
with the loss of many of his highest nobility, and he himself only 
escaped death by a disgraceful flight. The three Forest States (Wald- 
statten) maintained their rights as distinct members of the Empire ; and 
became the nucleus of the Federal Republic,* whose independence was 
first acknowledged by the Treaty of Westphalia, 1648. 

89. Meanwhile, Henry VII. of Luxembourg was restoring order to the 

empire, and securing to his own house, by the marriage of 

A. D. 1308—1313. 

his son, the vast revenues of the Bohemian kingdom. He 
visited Italy, whither no emperor had gone since Conrad IV., and where 
he was warmly welcomed by the oppressed Ghibellines. He earnestly 
endeavored to heal the long strife of parties, compelling all cities to 
recall their exiles, whether Guelf or Ghibelline, and appointing im- 
perial vicars for the maintenance of justice and order. He died soon 
after his coronation at Rome, A. D. 1312, not without suspicion of his 
having been poisoned by means of sacramental wine administered by a 
Dominican monk. 



♦ For an interesting history of Switzerland see Lardner's Cj'clopEEditi. 



FOUliTEKNTIl (JKNTURY. 97 

90. The German princes failed to unite in the choice of his successor ; 
and the division extending through the empire occasioned an exhausting 
civil war of thirteen years. The primate, the towns, and common people 
preferred Louis of Bavaria; most of the nobility, led by the Archbishop 
of Cologne, were for Duke Frederic of Austria. In the battle of Miihl- 
dorf, A. I>. 1322, Frederic became the prisoner of his victorious rival. 
Even then the enmity of several princes and of two 

•^ ^ _ A. D. 1314-1347 J 

successive popes made the reign of Louis IV. a continual 
scene of discord. King John of Bohemia, a true knight-errant, traversed 
Germany, Italy, and France fomenting the hostility of all parties to the 
Bavarian emperor. At length, A. D. 1346, Charles of Luxembourg, the 
son of King John, was chosen by some of the German princes as their 
head, and the death of his rival, the next year, led to his general recog- 
nition as the Emperor Charles IV. 

91. The year of his election was signalized by the battle of Crecy 
between the English and the French. The direct succession of the de- 
scendants of Hugh Capet was broken for the first time, A. D. 131G, after 
continuing from father to son %nore than three centuries. Popular 
opinion favored the daughter of Louis X., who died in that year, but 
the feudal principle, which demanded active military leadership in the 
suzerain, prevailed; and after the accession of Philip V., the brother of 
Louis, the Btates-general enacted for the first time a law definitely 
excluding women from the throne. Philip was likewise succeeded by 
his brother Charles, A. D. 1322 ; and as the latter left no sons, Philip of 
Valois, his cousin, came to the throne. Edward III. of England pre- 
ferred a nearer claim through his mother Isabella, who was a daughter of 
Philip IV. The Flemings, now ruled by Jacques van Artevelde, the 
brewer of Ghent, in revolt against Philip of Valois, hailed Edward as 
King of France; and the Emperor Louis IV. appointed him imperial 
vicar in the Netherlands. 

92. His invasion of France came to its most decisive issue at Crecy, 
where he was completely victorious, and King John of Bohemia, now old 
and blind, was left dead upon the field, together with a crowd of French 
chivalry. The sea-port and fortress of Calais, soon after taken by eleven 
months' siege, continued for two centuries in the English possession. 
King John of France, who succeeded his father, A. D. 1350, attempted 
to avenge himself upon Edward the Black Prince, who from his English 
territory of Aquitaine, was ravaging the western provinces. The battle 
of Poitiers was a still more remarkable victory for the 

English, their numbers being less than one-seventh of those 

of their enemies. King John was a prisoner, and 2500 knights and 

nobles were among the slain. 

93. During the four years' detention of King John in Bordeaux and 

M. H.— 7. 



98 MEDIumWL HISTORY. 

London, the dauphin, as Regent, hud to deal with a rebellion in Paris and 
a general revolt of the peasantry. These poor creatures were not appar- 
ently actuated by a hope, still less by a rational scheme for gaining their 
liberty, but rather by a blind fury of despair under oppressions too griev- 
ous to be borne. The castles of the nobles were demolished or burnt, 
and their inmates massacred. This ignorant warfare could not long 
maintain itself against the trained tactics of the ruling class. The 
peasants were defeated before Meaux with a loss of seven thousand of 
their number, and the scattered fugitives were hunted down like beasts. 
The " Jacquerie " was suppressed by the depopulation of vast districts. 
Unhappy France suiiered at the same time from a three years' pestilence 
and from the ravages of the disbanded soldiers, who, thrown out of pay 
and released from discipline, roamed over the country, plundering and 
burning at their pleasure. 

94. By the treaty of Bretigny, A. D. 1360, King John was liberated 
upon his renouncing all his sovereign rights over Aquitaine and several 
adjoining counties, and engaging to pay a ransom ruinous to his ex- 
hausted dominions. To I'aise the first installment, he condescended to 
marry his daughter to the heir of the Visconti, the rich and powerftil 
lords of Milan. The celebrated Petrarch, who visited Paris on this 
occasion, describes it as a desert overgrown by brambles and grass. The 
royal dukes of Anjou and Berri, who were hostages for the fulfillment 
of the treaty, violated their parole, and their father voluntarily returned 
to London, where he died a prisoner, A. D. 1364. 

95. Under the dauphin, now King Charles V., war with the English 
was indirectly renewed in the support by either nation of the rival 
claimants to the duchy of Brittany, and to the throne of Castile. The 
former contest is sometimes called the Ladies' War, because the rival 
dukes having been one imprisoned and the other slain, their wives 
carried on hostilities with equal energy. In both cases the English party 
was victorious, De Montfort being recognized as Duke of Bretagne, and 
Pedro the Cruel as King of Castile; but the last success was too dearly 
purchased by the incurable illness of the Prince of Wales, contracted 
in his Spanish campaign, and even suspected to have resulted from poison 
received from his jealous and ungrateful ally. Pedro was defeated by 
the French, A. D. 1368, and killed a few days later by his half-brother, 
Henry of Trastamare, who was able to retain the crown for himself and 
his descendants. The death of the Black Prince, A. D. 1376, Avas shortly 
followed by that of his father; and Charles V. by prudent and skillful 
management soon recovered from the English more than King John 
had lost. 

96. Within three years the kingdoms of France and England were 
placed in curiously similar circumstances. Two minor princes, Richard II. 



FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 99 

in England (1377) and Charles VI. in France (1380) came to the throne, 
each under the control of three* ambitious and powerful uncles, who used 
the royal resources for the furtherance of their own schemes of home and 
foreign dominion. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, having married 
a daughter of Pedro the Cruel, claimed the crown of Castile in her right, 
but his repeated attacks upon the country resulted only in failure. To 
understand the Duke of Anjou's attempts upon the kingdom of Naples, 
we must glance at the previous condition of Italy. King Robert of 
Naples, grandson of Charles of Anjou, was succeeded, A. D. 1343, by 
his granddaughter, Joanna, who at the age of sixteen was already married 
to her cousin, Andrew of Hungary. (§ 84.) The boorish manners of 
the king-consort and his attendants shocked the elegant court of Joanna, 
while his assumed claim to the crown in his own right alarmed her 
counsellors. Andrew was murdered, A. D. 1345, by the adherents, though, 
it may be hoped, without the connivance of his wife. His brother, Louis 
the Great of Hungary, avenged his death by invading the kingdom, 
while Joanna took refuge in the States of the Church. 

97. Rome, deserted by its bishops, was a prey to the lawless vio- 
lence of its noTales. Two princely and hostile families, the Colonna 
and Orsini, carried on their wars in the very streets of the city, or in 
the surrounding country, where their strong castles enabled them to 
defy justice. In this crisis Cola di Rienzi, a man whose genius and 
patriotism were fired by recollections of the glory of ancient Rome, pro- 
posed to the people a restoration of the " Good Estate," i. e., suppression 
of private wars, enforcement of law even upon the proudest patricians, 
and the arming and drilling of citizens for the defense of 

. . . A. D. 1347. 

their rights. He himself, refusing a senatorship, was 

chosen Tribune — by that name recalling the self-sacrificing efforts of 

the Gracchi. 

98. For a few months the den of robbers was transformed into a scene 
of peace and prosperity. The envoys of Rienzi, armed only with the 
white wand of their ofiice, traversed Italy, Germany, and France, sum- 
moning cities and monarchs to acknowledge the ancient supremacy of 
Rome. The King of Hungary and the Queen of Naples submitted their 
cause to his arbitration, and the republics of northern Italy sought his 
protection. He cited the Emperor Louis to appear and submit his 
election, as of old, to the choice of the Roman people, and he summoned 
the Pope and cardinals to return to their lawful seat. But the Tribune 
was spoiled by prosperity. He indulged his personal vanity by kingly 
pomp, and burdened the people with oppressive taxes, while he debased 



*The Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester in England; of Anjou, Berri, and 
Burgundy in France. 



l.ofC. 



100 3IEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

his acts of justice by needless cruelty, and by his extreme measures 
caused even the Colonna and Orsini to unite against him. He was 
forced to abdicate his authority and to spend six years in exile or in 
prison at Avignon, while Eome was left to the fury of the barons and the 
successive tyrannies of two self-styled tribunes, Cerroni and Baroncelli. 
Pope Innocent VI. at length released Rienzi from prison, and sent him 
to Eome with the title of senator. The people received him with joy, 
but the enmity of the nobles was not appeased, and after four months 
he was killed on the steps of the Capitol. 

99. The earlier years of Eienzi's exile were marked by a calamity 
which for a time surpassed all the other sufferings of that disastrous 
period. A plague known as the "Black Death" was brought from Asia 
into Europe by Italian merchants. In the year 1348 it spread through 
Italy, Savoy, Provence, Burgundy, and Catalonia. The next year it 
covered all Barbary, Spain, England, and France. In 1350 it overran 
Germany, Hungary, Denmark, Sweden, and even Iceland. Some cities 
lost three-fifths, others even seven-tenths of their inhabitants, and 
throughout France it was estimated that one-third of the people had 
perished. As if this visitation were not enough, several countries were 
harassed by the brigandage of the " Free-Companies," and the common 
people, seeking, some object more wretched than themselves on which to 
avenge their misery, accused the Jews of having produced the plague 
by poisoning the wells. A ruthless persecution was the result, and 
hundreds of Israelites chose to burn themselves and their families 
in their own houses rather than fall into the hands of the enraged and 
ignorant mob. 

100. Pope Gregory XI. ended the "Babylonish Captivity" by returning 
with his cardinals to Eome; but his death was followed by the great 
''Schism of the West" — two, and at one time even three, popes reigning 
simultaneously in different countries. Urban VI. disgusted the conclave 
which had elected him, by his harsh and violent measures, especially 
by appointing at once twenty-six new cardinals, thus throwing the rest 
into a hopeless minority. These, retiring to Fondi, declared the former 
election null, and chose the warlike Archbishop Eobert of Geneva, who, 
as Clement VII., was acknowledged by France, Naples, and Scotland, 
and ultimately by the Spanish kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre; 
while the rest of Europe adhered to Urban VI. Queen Joanna of 
Naples had aided the election of the antipope. Urban VI. in revenge 
bestowed her kingdom upon Charles of Durazzo, nephew of the King of 
Hungary, and crowned him at Eome, A. D. 1381. Charles had the 
hereditary claim, for the old Angevin line was to expire with Joanna ; but 
the childless queen, incensed at this disposal of her kingdom before her 
death, adopted Louis of Anjou, uncle of Charles VI. of France, as her 



FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 101 

heir. Clement VII., at Avignon, hastened not only to crown the French 
prince as King of Naples, but to assign him a new "kingdom of Adria" 
from the States of the Church. Charles of Durazzo was first in the 
field. Joanna was captured, and murdered in her imprisonment — a 
long cherished revenge on the part of the King of Hungary for the 
death of his brother. In order to prosecute his claims, the Duke of 
Anjou seized the treasures of the French kingdom immediately upon his 
brother's death. But his great preparations ended only in disgrace. The 
greater part of his army fell victims to the plague, and he himself died 
near Bari, A. D. 1384. French claims upon the Neapolitan kingdom were 
cause of war for more than a century without ever resulting in perma- 
nent conquest. 

Increase of mental activity in Europe after the Crusades. Else of the House of Haps- 
burg. Extortions of Philip the Fair ; supremacy of England among the British Isles. 
Seven kingdoms in Spain ; rise of the podestas in the free cities of Italy ; separation of 
Sicily from kingdom of Naples. Pontifical arrogance of Boniface VIII. met by the 
haughty resistance of Philip IV. Civilization of the northern kingdoms and of Hun- 
gary. Papal court at Avignon 69 years. Suppression of the Templars, A. D. 1.307-1322. 
The "Conjurators" at Riitli lay the foundation of the Swiss Republic. Leopold of Aus- 
tria defeated at Morgarten, 1315. Henry VII. restores imperial power in Italy. Contest 
between Frederic of Austria and Louis of Bavaria : the latter victorious, but superseded 
before his death by Charles of Luxembourg. Accession of the Valois in France ; coun- 
ter-claims of Edward III. of England. English victories at Crecy and Poitiers. Cap- 
tivity of King John of France, and war of the peasantry. Wars of the French and 
Enghsh in Brittany and Castile. Minorities of Richard II. and Charles VI. Claims of 
John of Lancaster to Castile and of Louis of Anjou to Naples. Murder of Andrew of 
Hungary. Tribunate of Rienzi at Rome. Ravages of the Great Plague, depredations of 
the Free Companies, and a persecution of the Jews complete the disorders of Europe. Re- 
turn of the popes to Rome, followed by a division in western Christendom. Rival popes 
favor rival candidates to the kingdom of Naples. Joanna put to death, the kingdom 
remains to the Hungarian line. 

France and England, A. D. 1384^1493. 

101. Despoiled by the unscrupulous ambition of Louis of Anjou, 
France had still more to suffer from the insanity of her king, and the 
mutual hatreds of the remaining princes of the royal blood. The Duke 
of Burgundy, by marrying the heiress of Flanders, had become lord of 
the Netherlands, and thus richer and more powerful than any sovereign 
prince then reigning in Europe. This circumstance, with his premiership 
among the peers of France, gave him a controlling power in the French 
court, but a rival party was led by the Duke of Orleans, brother of the 
king. John the Fearless, succeeding to the duchy of Burgundy, resorted 
to more unscrupulous measures than his father. After 

^ A. D. 1407. 

swearing reconciliation and friendship with his cousin of 

Orleans, he caused the latter to be murdered in the streets of Paris, and 



102 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

extorted from the imbecile king a pardon for the crime. A few years 
later John of Burgundy was himself assassinated in open day in the pres- 
ence of the Dauphiii. 

102. Henry V. of England was already in the country, having availed 
himself of the miserable dissensions of the princes, to prosecute the an- 
cient claim t)f his house to the French crown. The son of the murdered 
duke — known in history as Philip the Good — joined the English and 

contributed materially to their great victory at Agincourt, 
Oct. U15. ■' *= J to J 

Avhere the French, though four times as numerous as their 
enemies, were as signally defeated as at Crecy or Poitiers. A general 
reason for these victories of the English may be found in their employ- 
ment of large companies of paid archers — precursors of modern in- 
fantry — while the French had as yet only feudal armies, consisting of 
independent nobles and their retainers. They learned, however, a lesson 
by their disaster, which made them before the end of the century a lead- 
ing power in Europe. Charles VII. organized the first standing army, 
except the Janizaries (see § 160), which Europe had seen ; and his reg- 
ularly drilled troops soon superseded the feudal militia, which could only 
be called out for a limited time, and quitted the camp, after a few 
weeks' service, to resume the ordinary industries. 

103. Henry V., having married a daughter of Charles VI., was 

crowned at Paris with his infant son, and was duly recognized as regent 

and heir-expectant of the French kingdom. His sudden death occurring 

the same year with that of his father-in-law, cut short his 
A. D. 1422. •' . . ' 

plans of conquest ; but the English interests were ably 

maintained by his brother and other great nobles, while the French were 
still a prey to hopeless dissensions, and Charles VII., their rightful sov- 
ereign, was driven south of the Loire and even meditated a flight into 
Spain. At this lowest point in the humiliation of France, unexpected 
relief appeared in the person of a young peasant girl from Domremy in 
Lorraine, who believed herself commissioned and inspired by Heaven. 
Her faith, and the superstition of both French and English soldiery, 
sustained the illusion, if such it was. She defeated the English before 
Orleans, and forced them to raise the siege of that city. Again defeat- 
ing them at Patay, and taking by storm the two towns of Jargeau and 
Troyes, she conducted the Daxiphin in triumph to Eheims, where alone 
he could be anointed with the holy oil used in the consecration of all 
kings since the days of Clovis. 

104. Her mission thus ended, Joan d'Arc desired to return to her 
sheepfolds, but the king refused to dismiss her, though the bitter jeal- 
ousy of his counselors and his own apathy already indicated her ap- 
proaching fate. At the head of the army she captured one of the suburbs 
of Paris, but was repulsed and wounded in an attack upon the city 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 103 

itself. She was subsequently captured by the Burgundians in a battle 
before Compiegne and basely sold to the English, who caused her to be 
tried, not as a prisoner of war, but as a sorceress, and burned in the mar- 
ket-place of Kouen. The King of France, who owed her his crown, 
made no effort to save her life. " Charles the Victorious " has been more 
truly styled the " Well-served," for the great successes of his reign were 
independent of his own efforts or abilities. The dissensions of the Eng- 
lish princes dissolved that dominion in France which the brief career of 
Henry V. had built up ; and the Duke of Burgundy, offended in many 
ways by his foreign allies, made his peace with the king, ending the long 
war with the Armagnac or Orleans faction, which had desolated the 
whole country during twenty-eight years. 

105. England, meanwhile, was the scene of important events. Eichard 
II. (see § 96 and Appendix) had been deposed A. D. 1399, and probably 
murdered in Pontefract Castle, by order of his cousin, Henry of Lan- 
caster, who assumed the crown. The energy of Henry IV. and the 
military fame of his son sui:)pressed or silenced the claims of the elder 
line of descendants from Edward III.; but the imbecility of Henry VI. 
and the violent policy of his brilliant but unscrupulous consort, Mar- 
garet of Anjou (see § 125) hastened the ruin of their house. The Duke 
of York was recalled from his regency of France, and seized 

^ •' ,' A. D. 1455. 

the opportunity to assert his right to the English crown. 
The "Wars of the Roses" — so called because a white and a red rose 
were the badges respectively of the parties of York and Lancaster — filled 
England for thirty years with confusion and bloodshed. The great Earl 
of Warwick, called the " King-maker," was at first a devoted adherent 
of the house of York, but having been deeply injured by Edward IV., 
the first sovereign of that family, he embraced the cause of Henry VI., 
whom he restored for a few months to the throne. He fell, however, in 
the battle of Barnet ; the young prince, Edward of Lancaster, having 
been defeated at Tewkesbury, was brutally murdered in the presence of 
his conqueror ; Henry VI. met a secret death in the tower of London, 
and the York party remained in the ascendant. 

106. The two young sons of Edward IV. were murdered after his 
death by their uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, who himself assumed the 
crown as Eichard III. He was defeated after two years 

•' A. D. 1485. 

at Bosworth Field ; and Henry Tudor, a descendant of 
John of Gaunt, became the founder of a new line of English sovereigns. 
The battle of Bosworth, which overthrew the feudal system in England, 
was a no less important event than that of Hastings which introduced it. 
Many great families were ruined by the civil wars. In England, as in 
France, royal power increased as that of the nobles declined ; and the 
Tudors were the most absolute of English kings. 



104 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

107. Louis XI., who received the French crown upon his father's 
death, in 1461, had been an efficient ally of the Lancastrians, while his 
great vassal, Charles of Burgundy, married the sister of Edward IV., 
and espoused the cause of the Yorkists. This was but one of many 
points of enmity between the elder and younger branches of the Valois.* 
As dauphin, Louis had been banished for high misdemeanors to his own 
province of Vienne, where with extraordinary vigor he set in operation 
the same policy which afterwards distinguished his reign in France. He 
stopped the private wars of the nobles and cultivated the friendship 
of the people ; he summoned a parliament at Grenoble and founded a 
university at Valence ; he raised an army, coined money, and made 
treaties with foreign states in his own name. 

Threatened by his father with an armed invasion of the rebellious 
province, he took refuge in Burgundy, and requited the generous hospi- 
tality of Philip the Good by studying the weak points in his dominion 
and sowing dissensions between the duke and his son, the future Charles 
the Bold. The two young princes became, a few years later, the chief 
actors in the events of their time. Their characters present the strongest 
possible contrast. Charles was haughty but impetuous, ready to risk all 
for glory and power; Louis was sly, cautious, insinuating, tenacious of 
his purpose, but willing to compass it by slow and secret approaches. 
His pride never interfered with his interests, and his cruelty was 
unchecked by either pity or honor. 

108. The great effort of his reign was to consolidate the royal power 
at the expense of the nobles and the Church. One important step was 
the establishment throiighout the kingdom of a system of posts by which 
swift and constant intelligence was received at the capital. The king's 
hostile measures provoked the great vassals to unite in a " League of the 
Public Weal," which had at one time 100,000 men on foot. It was joined 
even by the Duke of Berri, the only brother of the king, and its armies 
under Count Charles of Charolais, the heir of Burgundy, gained a doubt- 
ful victory at Mont I'Heri ; but the wily king compassed its dissolution 
more by arts than arms. He excited rebellions in the Flemish provinces 
of the Duke of Burgundy, and by separate treaties he induced the 
several members of the League to forget the " public good " in their own 
advantage. 

The success of the League would probably have made France what 
Germany has been until our day, a cluster of almost independent 
dukedoms and principalities. Its failure laid the foundation of a com- 
pact and powerful monarchy. The death of Charles du Maine, last heir 
of the Angevin claims and possessions, added to the crown-lands, Anjou, 



* For a table of the royal and ducal houses of Valois, see Appendix. 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 105 

Maine, and Provence, the latter with its ports making France for the 
first time a great maritime power, while the fatal bequest of his preten- 
sions to the kingdom of Naples proved in three later reigns a source 
of almost unmingled disaster. 

109. Charles, Duke of Burgundy, is known in history as the Terrible, 
the Bold, or the Hash ; and though his career was illuminated by great 
talents and generous impulses, his disastrous end best justifies the latter 
epithet. Having failed to dismember France by the war of the Public 
Weal, his yet greater ambition was to overpower it by reviving the Mid- 
dle Kingdom of Lothaire, (see Book I., §§ 61, 79.) To this end he pur- 
chased Guelders and the county of Zutphen from the aged Duke 
Arnold ; obtained Alsace and large territories in Suabia from Sigismund 
of the Tyrol; and by seizing and imprisoning the young duke, Eene 
of Lorraine, established his power for a short time over that duchy. As 
Duke of Burgundy and Count of Artois and Flanders, Charles was a 
vassal of France. As Count of Burgundy, (or Franche-Comte,) Duke of 
Brabant, and lord of a dozen or more German and Netherlandish sov- 
ereignties, he was a prince of the Empire. No king then living possessed 
so many rich and flourishing cities, or could command such resources 
both for raising and sustaining armies. 

But his hopes of royalty proved unsubstantial shadows. When all was 
ready for his coronation at Treves, the Emperor Frederic III. suddenly 
changed his mind and left the city in the night. The gold and persua- 
sions of the King of France stirred up the hostility of the Swiss, who 
invaded the territories of Charles, and defeated him at Granson and 
Morat with enormous loss of men and treasure. A few 

A. D. 1477. 

months later he lost his life at Nancy, in a battle with 
the Duke of Lorraine. As he left no son, the duchy of Burgundy 
was seized by the King of France ; but the rich inheritance of the 
Low Countries was transferred to the house of Austria by the mar- 
riage of the young Duchess Mary with Maximilian, heir of that family, 
and afterwards emperor. The ambitious schemes of Charles the Bold 
were partly fulfilled by his great-grandson, who wore the imperial crown, 
and was a life-long rival of the King of France. 

110. Louis XI. survived his great rival but six years. The cruelty 
and perfidy of his policy were signally avenged by the wretched sus- 
picions which haunted his declining years. He shut himself up in the 
castle of Plessis-les-Tours, guarded by triple fortification of moat, ram- 
part, and palisades, and by crossbowmen who shot at every living thing 
that approached. Into this gloomy abode the king scarcely admitted his 
own children, but confined himself to the company of a hangman, a 
barber, an astrologer, and a physician, who ruled him through his super- 
stitions and satiated their avarice at his expense. He died, A. D. 1483. 



106 MEBLUVAL III^'TOET. 

His ouly son, Charles VIII., was but fourteen years of age, and weak 
both in body and mind. The government was therefore entrusted to his 
elder sister, Anne the Lady of Beaujeu, whose mental character so far 
resembled her father's, that he had called her the "least foolish woman 
in existence." 

111. Her regency was disturbed by a fresh league of the nobles, 
aided by several foreign powers. Its two most important members 
were Francis Duke of Bretagne, the last of the Montforts, and Louis 
Duke of Orleans, brother-in-law of the French king. The Breton Avar 
was decided by the battle of St. Aubin, in which the army of the regent 
was victorious, the Duke of Orleans and the Prince of Orange being 
prisoners. Francis de Montfort soon died, and his daughter Anne, 
scarcely twelve years of age, inherited his sovereignty. The Duchess 
Mary of Burgundy had now been six years dead. Maximilian was regent 
of the Netherlands for his son, and was already crowned King of the 
Romans. In 1489 he was married by proxy to the young Duchess Anne, 
while his daughter Margaret was betrothed to the French king, and sent 
to Paris for her education. Tempted, however, by the hope of annex- 
ing the great duchy of Bretagne to the monarchy, Charles VIII. nego- 
tiated for himself a treaty of marriage with Anne, and thus deprived the 
future emperor at one blow of a wife and a son-in-law. The combined 
injury and insult drove Maximilian into a war in which though aided 
by Henry VII. of England, his resources were far less than his needs; 
but Charles was too anxious to depart on his invasion of Italy, to push 
his advantages in the north. By the Peace of Seulis, the Princess 
Margaret, and her rich Burgundian dowry, were restored to her father; 
the English king received a large sum in reimbursement of his expenses, 
and the provinces of Cerdagne and Roussillon — held in pledge by Louis 
XI. — were freely given back to Spain. 

France, during insanity of Charles VI., is distracted by quarrels of the royal princes. 
Duke of Orleans murdered by his cousin of Burgundy, who is himself assassinated in 
turn with the connivance of the dauphin. His son in revenge joins the English, who 
gain a great victory at Agincourt under Henry V. Paid standing armies begin to super- 
sede feudal forces. Henry V. crowned in Paris — dies the same year with Charles VI. 
Frencli interests retrieved by Joan d'Arc, the inspired peasant-girl of Domremy. English 
dominion in France falls almost as rapidly as it has risen. 

England ruled in succession by three Lancastrian and (nominally) three Yorkist sov- 
ereigns. Wars of the Roses only ended by the Battle of Bosworth and the accession of 
Henry Tudor. 

Louis XL of France, as dauphin and king, exalts royal at the expense of feudal 
power. League of the Public Weal defeated by his arts. His rivalry with Charles of 
Burgundy,- who desires to restore the Jliddle Kingdom, but is defeated and slain at Nancy 
and his dominions dismembered. Miserable death of Louis XL Regency of his daughter. 
War with Bretagne ; that duchy united with the French crown by the marriage of Charles 
VIII. with the Duchess Anne. 



PROGRESS OF THE EMPIRE. 107 

Progress of the Empire. 

112. To resume the history of the Empire: The principal act of 
Charles IV. was the "Golden Bull,"* which defined the 

' A. D. 1346-1378. 

powers and privileges of the seven Electors, and the mode 
of imperial election at Frankfort and of coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The choice of the German princes was declared sufficient to constitute a 
true and lawful "Emperor of the Romans;" but until crowned by the 
Pope he bore only the title of emperor-elect. Charles himself was crowned 
at Rome, 1355, but by previous agreement he left that city on the same day, 
and never revisited it. Wenceslaus, son of Charles, became "King of the 
Romans," and succeeded peaceably upon his father's death in 1378. His 
drunkenness and indifierence to the interests of the empire gave free 
course to the disorderly elements of the time. The cities of Suabia, like 
the cantons of Switzerland, leagued themselves to resist the tyranny of the 
nobles; and these, on the other hand, united to maintain by violence the 
interests of their order. 

113. The most formidable of these armed societies consisted of 167 
nobles with their retainers, who followed Duke Leopold of Austria in his 
vengeance against the Swiss. These confederates mustered 1400 men on 
the heights of Sempach; the army of the duke numbered several thou- 
sands even before his infantry arrived. Though magnificently mounted, 
his horsemen could not maneuver in the narrow mountain-pass, and he 
therefore ordered knights and nobles to dismount and charge the peasantry 
on foot. The latter were on the point of being surrounded 

i- ^ A. D. 1386. 

by an impenetrable wall of steel, when Arnold of Winkelried, 
crying out " I will open a way to liberty," sprang into the midst of the 
Austrians, gathered into his bosom as many as he could seize of the 
enemy's spears, and instantly falling, made a path for his comrades over 
his dead body. The Austrians gave way; Duke Leopold seized his own 
banner, after four in succession of its brave bearers had fallen, and 
plunging among the enemy found the death he sought. More than 
650 counts, barons, and knights, with thousands of their vassals, lay 
dead upon the field. The battle of Sempach resulted in an honorable 
peace, by which the Swiss were secured in the possession of all which 
they had gained. 

114. The burghers of south Germany, who, encouraged by the victory 
of the Swiss, undertook a similar contest against the knights and barons. 



* The decrees of popes and emperors were called hulls from the pendent (bulla) of gold, 
silver, or lead, which was affixed to the seal. — The seven Electors, now first confirmed in 
their office, were, the three archbishops of Mentz, Trfeves, and Cologne, and four lay- 
princes, the King of Bohemia, the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and the 
€ount-oalatine of the Rhine. 



108 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

Avero lot<s Ibrtuiuite. They were many times defeated ; their families and 
movablo goods were crowded into the cities; but throughout the 
country their liouses and villages were destroyed. Wenceshius resided 
chietty in his own kingdom of Bohemia, never concerning himself with 
his imperial duties. In A. D. 1400, the dissatisfied electors declared 
him deposed, and chose Kupert, Count-palatine of the Rhine, to be 
emperor. The ten years' administration of Rupert, in spite of his energy 
and ability, was too short to remedy the disorders of Germany. He was 
succeeded, A. D. 1410, by Sigismund, King of Hungary, brother of Wen- 
ceslaus, and the most illustrious of the Bohemian princes. 

115. Church and State were now equally in want of wise government. 
The return of the popes to Rome had been followed by the Great Schism, 
and three nominal heads of Christendom, in Italy, France, and Spain, 
were launching the thunders of exconuuunication, each agaiust his two 
rivals and all their adherents. The damaging truths uttered during this 
heat of controversy, naturally lessened the reverence in which the 
hierarchy had been held ; and the notorious unworthinoss of many high 
prelates impressed on the foremost adherents of the papacy a sense of the 
need of reform. In England, near the end of the fourteenth century, the 
preaching of Wiclitle, and above all, his translation of the Holy Script- 
ures into the popular tongue, had led many thousands of people to 
doubt or deny the authority of the Church. In Bohemia, Milecz, Von 
Zanow, and John Huss had begun a similar revolution, even before the 
latter was reinforced and encouraged by the writings of Wiclifte. The 
marriage of Anne, sister of King Wenceslaus, with Richard II. of Eng- 
land promoted a free interchange of opinion between the two countries 
at this supremely important crisis. Scholars traveled back and forth 
between the now famous universities of Oxford and Prague. Wicliffe 
and Huss, the ablest doctors in their respective universities, spoke with 
clearness and force the language of the common people; and their cogent 
reasonings exposed the terrible abuses springing from the luxury of the 
clergy and the pretensions of the mendicant orders. 

110. The first care of Sigismund was the convening of a general coun- 
cil for the union and reformation of the Church and the suppression of 
heresy. Eighteen thousand clergy, including patriarchs, cardinals, and 
bishops, luuuhwls of learned men from the universities, sovereign princes 
or their embassadors, and delegates from the free cities, met at Constance 
near the end of A. D. 1414. During the following year Pope John 
XXIII. from Rome — "a man charged, at least, with every imaginable 
crime" — presided, and the Emperor Sigismund arrived soon after his 
coronation. Though avowedly convened for purposes of reform, one of 
the first acts of the Council was to condemn and burn a refinnier. John 
Huss, having been cited to answer for his teaching's, had come te Com 



PROGRESS OF THE EMPIRE. 109 

stance under the imperial safe-conduct. He was, nevertheless, cast into 
prison, and after repeated trials was compelled to choose between death 
and recantation. 'He manfully chose the former, and was burnt in the 
presence of many prelates of the Council. His friend Jerome, a professor 
of theology at Prague, suffered the same punishment eleven months later. 

117. The Council having deposed all three of the existing popes, 
elected in their place Otto Colonna, who took the name of Martin V. 
Though himself of blameless morality, Martin evaded all the proposed 
measures for limiting the license of the clergy, so that the Council proved 
a failure so far as the highest of its purposes was concerned. The papal 
states were now wholly in the power of Braccio Montone, one of those 
captains of free companies who were seizing sovereignty by the strong 
hand in many of the cities of Italy. To expel the usurper, the Pope 
employed a still more famous and unscrupulous adventurer, Giacomuzzo 
Sforza, then in the service of Joanna II. of Naples, but whose immediate 
descendants became lords of Milan. 

118. The death of Huss and Jerome of Prague excited an open revolt 
in Bohemia, where the ex-emperor, Wenceslaus, yet reigned as king. The 
zeal of the Hussites passed all bounds of reason ; Prague was seized, the 
surrounding country ravaged, monks and friars every-where put to death. 
Their fury reached its height when by the death of Wenceslaus, A. D. 
1419, his brother Sigismund — held guiltiest of all for the betrayal of the 
Bohemian martyrs — became rightful king of the country. All his 
attempts, supported by the whole force of the Empire, to regain his 
inheritance, were ignominiously defeated, and the desolating torrent of war 
swept over Saxony, Brandenburg, Franconia, Bavaria, and Austria. At 
length the Council of Basle by wise and iust concessions, 

^ ^ •* ' A. D. 1431-1449. 

brought all the reasonable followers of Huss into peace with 
the Church. The two extreme sects of Taborites and "Orphans," (so 
called in reference to their leader, Ziska, whom they had lost,) were 
defeated at Lepan, A. D. 1434, with the loss of their great general, 
Procopius, and Sigismund obtained his Bohemian kingdom only a few 
months before his death, in 1437. 

119. The Council at Basle carried forward the movements toward 
reform proposed at Constance, and especially affirmed the voice of the 
whole Church, speaking through such an assembly, to be superior to that 
of the Pope. Eugenius IV., the new pontiff, finding himself unable to 
control the transalpine Council, summoned a rival one at Ferrara, under 
the specious pretext of receiving the eastern Emperor John Palseologus, 
with the Patriarch of Constantinople and a most important embassy of 
Greek clergy. His narrowing empire being more and more closely 
hemmed in by the Turks, that sovereign stooped to buy the succor of 
western Christendom by acknowledging the supremacy of the Roman 



110 MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 

bishop and yielding the doctrinal points which for centuries had been 
in dispute between the two Churches. The mercenary 

A. D. 1-13S, 1139. ^ . , , , _ ^, , . , 

union Avas signed and sealed at t lorence, whither the 
Council had been adjourned ; but it was indignantly repudiated at Con- 
stantinople, and fifteen years from the emperor's return, that city was 
surrendered to the Turks. 

120. The Council of Basle, meanwhile, unheeding its excommunication 
by Pope Eugenius, declared him deposed, and elected for his successor the 
abdicated Duke Amadeus of Savoy, who, weary of sovereignty, had re- 
tired to a hermitage on Lake Geneva. He assumed the name of Felix 
v., and was crowned Avith great magnificence at Basle, A. D. 1440. 
JEneas Sylvius Piccoloniini, the historian of the Council, was the most 
active spirit of the time. Changing his allegiance to suit his interest, 
he became secretary successively to the anti-pope Felix, to the new em- 
peror Frederic III., to Eugenius IV., and his successor; and it w^as chiefly 
owing to the diplomacy of the wily Italian that Germany was led to 
disown the Council and return to the obedience of Eugenius. The Pope 
died a few days after this event, and by the wisdom of his successor, 
Nicholas V., the Council was dissolved, and the anti-pope reduced to a 
cardinal. 

121. Nicholas V. was perhaps the best of the pontiffs. Instead of heap- 
ing wealth and honors upon his iamily, his ambition was to make Italy 
a home of letters and arts. His agents ransacked Europe and south- 
western Asia for copies of Greek authors wdierewith to enrich the new 
library of the Vatican, and a crowd of emigrant scholars, driven from the 
east by the progress of the Turks, were magnificently received at Rome 
and Florence. The Jubilee of 1450 drew a countless throng of pilgrims 

and a great influx of wealth to the papal city ; but scarcely 
had the joy of that event subsided when all Christendom 
was thrilled Avith fear and consternation by tidings of the fall of Constan- 
tinople. 

122. Already under Mohammed I. (A. D. 1413-1421) the Turks had 
become possessed of the entire territory of the Eastern Empire with the 
exceptions of the Morea, a few insignificant places on the Propontis, and 
the capital itself, within whose walls they established a colony, coined 
money, and carried on Mohammedan worship, under the very eyes of 
the emperor. In their attacks upon Hungary, long the bulwark of 
Christendom against Islam, they were less successful. Their seven 
months' siege of Belgrade, A. D. 1440, resulted only in failure and a loss 
of 17,000 men. John Huniades, a Wallachian noble, defeated them on 
many fields ; his most decisive victory Avas gained at Kunobitza, where their 
forces Avere nearly annihilated. Pope Eugenius IV. sent a French and 
German army, under Cardinal Cesarini, AAdiich procured the treaty of 



PROGRESS OF THE EMPIRE. Ill 

Szegedin, A. D. 1444, on terms humiliating to the Turks and honorable 
to the crusaders. But no sooner had the Turkish bost departed into Asia, 
than the papal legate, against the indignant remonstrances of Huniades, 
resolved to break his word and recommence hostilities. The 

Nov. 1444. 

result was the fatal battle of Varna, in which King Ladis- 
laus of Poland and Hungary, the Cardinal Cesarini, and thousands more, 
lost their lives. Huniades as regent of the kingdom for the infant Ladis- 
laus, son of Albert II. of Germany, was again defeated by the Turks in 
a three days' battle on the plain of Cossova, A. D. 1448. 

123. The fall of Constantinople, though to discerning eyes long certain 
to take place, sent a shock of grief and terror throughout Europe. 
Thousands of affrighted fugitives from the captured city reported the 
watchword which was wont to pass between the sultan and his janizaries: 
"Farewell, until we meet in Rome!" Nicholas V. proclaimed a new 
crusade. The " Turk's bell " sounded at noon in every parish in Europe, 
calling the faithful to pray that the progress of the infidel might be 
arrested, ^neas Sylvius lent his great talents and energy to the arming 
of Christendom ; and John of Ca2:»istran, a Franciscan friar, traversed 
Italy and Germany, every-where by his wonderful eloquence rousing the 
enthusiasm of the crowds. The irregular force which he 

. * A. D. 1456. 

raised, added to that of the Hungarians, was able to relieve 
the fortress of Belgrade, again besieged by the terrible artillery of the 
Turks ; but the death of Huniades damped the rejoicings of Europe at 
this triumph. 

124. On the death of the young Ladislaus, Matthias Corvinus, the son 
of Huniades, was elected king of Hungary, and during his 

' ^ & ^5 o A. D. 1458-1490. 

long reign he was the ablest champion of Christendom 
against the Turks. In the year of his accession, ^neas Sylvius became 
Pope Pius II. The Council of Mantua, A. D. 1459, raised (upon paper) 
an army of 88,000 men, of which the emperor was declared generalissimo ; 
and the Pope, nothwithstanding his years and infirmities, resolved to 
take the field in person. He died A. D. 1464, while still vainly awaiting 
at Ancona the arrival of the Venetian forces. The age of crusades was 
past. Although Venice, in defense of her commerce, waged a fifteen 
years' war with the Turks, (A. D. 1464-1479,) little or no aid was afforded 
by the other European states ; and the Mohammedan power was gradually 
confirmed over all the territories of the Eastern Empire. In 1479, the 
Venetians, now more hostile to King Ferdinand of Naples than to the 
Turks, even invited the latter to invade the Italian dominions of the 
former, by representing that Otranto, Brindisi, and Taranto were parts 
of the Eastern Empire, and as such belonged to Mohammed. The invi- 
tation was too readily accepted ; Otranto was taken and its citizens 
treated with atrocious cruelty. The sudden death of the Sultan, how- 



112 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

ever, cut short the Italian conquests; and, pressed by famine, the Turks 
abandoned this westernmost point of their European dominions, little 
more than a year from its first occupation. 

Golden Bull of Charles IV. settles the constitution of the Empire. Leopold of Austria, 
with his league of nobles, is defeated at Sempach by the Swiss ; but the knights and barons 
are victorious over the Suabian peasantry and burghers. Wenceslaus deposed and Rupert 
made emperor, A. D. 1400. 

Religious reformation in England and Bohemia. The. Emperor Sigismund caUs the 
Council of Constance, to end the schism and suppress heresy. John Huss and Jerome of 
Prague burned ; three popes deposed and Martin V. elected by the Council. Twenty years' 
-war of religion in Bohemia. Co\incil of Basle declares against Eugenius IV., and elects 
Felix V. as anti-pope. A rival Council at Ferrara and Florence receives the Emperor and 
Patriarch of Constantinople, and attempts the reunion of the eastern and western Churches. 
Western Christendom again united under Nicholas V., a munificent patron of letters and 
all the arts. The Turks, long withstood almost single-handed by John Huniades, at 
length capture Constantinople and overturn the Eastern Empire. A crusade led by John 
of Capistran relieves Belgrade. Matthias Corvinus becomes king of Hungary. The west- 
ward progress of the Turks is arrested at Otranto, A. D. 1481. 

Italy and Spain. 

125. Of the many powers which divided Italy, only six now retained 
any importance: the three sovereignties of Naples, the States of the 
Church, and Milan ; and the three Eepublics of Venice, Florence, and 
Genoa. 

Queen Joanna II. of Naples, daughter of Charles of Durazzo, called to 
her aid Alfonso V. of Aragon and Sicily, who received the title of Duke 
of Calabria as heir-expectant of the Italian crown. The queen, however, 
changed her mind, and adopted Louis III. of Anjou as her heir. The 
French prince died in 1434, and Joanna herself the following year. Count 
Eene of Anjou, brother of Louis, had been named in her will, 'but he 
was captured and detained in the north by a rival claimant to the duchy 
of Lorraine ; and the Neapolitan nobles called in Alfonso again. The 
forces of Genoa and Milan fought for Anjou, and gained a most bloody 
victory over the Catalan fleet in the Mediterranean, Alfonso, his brother, 
and many of their attendant nobles being prisoners. The personal 
qualities of the King of Aragon gave him, however, the final victory 
over the accomplished and amiable, but inefiicient Rene, who retired from 
public contests to devote himself to the more congenial pursuits of poetry 
and painting. Two of Eene's children were strongly contrasted with him 
in energy of character : Margaret, who in England so long and valiantly 
maintained the Lancastrian cause against the house of York, and John, 
Duke of Calabria, who displayed no less genius and determination in the 
pursuit of his lost inheritance. 

126. The death of the last of the Visconti, A. D. 1447, was followed 



ITALY AND SPAIN. 113 

by an attempt to restore a republic in Milan. If Venice and Florence 
had taken the generous part, this effort might have been successful, and 
northern Italy, united and free, might have become invincible to the for- 
eign foes, who too soon found out her weakness and her wealth. But of 
the two neighboring republics, one was jealous of Milanese power, and the 
other was becoming indifferent to her own freedom and hostile to that of 
others. Francesco Sforza, a soldier of fortune, who had married a daughter 
of the deceased duke, succeeded in making hifnself master of the city and its 
territory. The disposal of the duchy, according to feudal law, could rest 
only with the emperor ; but it was also claimed by Charles, Duke of 
Orleans, in the right of his mother, Valentina Visconti; and by King 
Alfonso of Naples, who had been designated by the will of the late duke. 
The four opposing claims gave rise to long and important wars, to be 
described in the next period. 

127. Placed midway between the east and the west, Venice enjoyed 
almost a monopoly of the commerce of the Levant with western and 
northern Europe. Beside its extensive territories on the Italian mainland, 
it held, before the end of the century, the sovereignty of Crete, Cyprus, 
and the Morea, with many towns and fortresses on the Grecian islands. 
A curiously complex constitution made Venice the strongest oligarchy on 
record. The Doge or Duke, though nominally supreme, was really only a 
puppet of the Council of Ten. Every year as the representative of the 
state, he cast a consecrated ring into the waters of the Adriatic, saying: 
"We betroth thee, O Sea, in sign of our lawful and perpetual dominion!" 

128. Genoa, having a far less strong and settled government than Ven- 
ice, was at various times compelled to place herself under the protection 
of the Empire, of Naples, of Milan, or of France. The enterprise and 
energy of her merchants, made them, however, formidable rivals of the 
Venetians, whom they nearly excluded from the ports of the Black Sea, 
and thus gained a monopoly of the trade with the interior of eastern 
Europe. The naval wars between Genoa and Venice can not here be 
detailed. They ended usually in favor of the latter. 

129. The inland republic of Florence has left a deeper impress upon the 
character of Italy and the literature and art of the world than either of 
her maritime sisters. Far more popular than that of Venice, her govern- 
ment rested upon the industries of her citizens. Chief magistrates could 
only be chosen from members of the "Arts" or trades' unions, which were 
the same as the "Guilds" of England and the Netherlands. These officers 
were chosen every two months and the grand Council of State every four 
months, so that the whole mass of citizens possessing the qualifications 
for office, was elevated in turn to public trust. No magistrate received 
any reward for his services. During the supremacy of the Guelfs, Flor- 
ence conquered the ports of Pisa and Leghorn and half of Tuscany, while 

M. H. 8. 



114 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

the wealth of her great bankers, merchants, and woolen manufacturers 
established her commercial fame in Europe. 

130. From 1434 to 1464, Cosmo de Medici held the supreme power in 
Florence, and his family continued for more than three hundred years, 
first as chief citizens, and then as grand-dukes, to control the destinies of 
the state. The power of Cosmo and of his grandson, Lorenzo the Magnifi- 
cent, resembles that of Pisistratus and his family at Athens ; it was simply 
that of citizens, first among equals; and though supported, especially in 
the case of Cosmo, by the control of a rich money-lender over needy 
borrowers, it seemed to rest on the esteem and afiection of the people. 
The public entertainments which they gave rendered life in Florence a 
perpetual scene of gay and brilliant festivity. In judging their claims, it 
must be remembered that their patronage of literature gave the Medici 
the advantage of being favorably reported to posterity. Their policy 
exalted the intellectual fame of Florence at the expense of her freedom, 
and their influence among the states of Italy was often, as in the case of 
Milan, thrown on the side of despotism. Still, to their liberal and enlight- 
ened tastes, Florence, in great measure, owes her title of Mother of Mod- 
ern Art. 

131. Castile and Leon, during the long minority and reign of John IL, 
(A. D. 1406-1454,) became subject to the sway of Alvaro de Luna, constable 
of the united kingdoms, and one of the most powerful vassals that Europe 
has known. His own retainers made an army of 20,000 men, and he held 
his court with all the pomp of sovereignty. The king at length joined 
with the other nobles against him, and caused him to be executed at Valla- 
dolid. Henry TV., son of John IL, was succeeded, A. D. 1474, by his 
sister Isabella, whose marriage with Ferdinand, heir of Aragon, Catalonia, 
and Valencia, led to the union of all the Spanish kingdoms under one 
sovereign. 

132. Aragon, by the acquisition of Catalonia in 1137, had become the 
third naval power in Europe, being excelled only by Venice and Genoa. 
The Catalans, a hardy and adventurous race, were the best of sailors, and 
their bravery contributed much to the extension of the Aragonese do- 
minions. The power of the king was even more limited than in Castile. 
The law-making power in both kingdoms resided in the Cortes or national 
assembly, which consisted of clergy, nobles, and deputies of the towns ; 
but so far from cherishing this guarantee of their freedom, the citizens 
seem to have grudged the expense of maintaining their representatives, 
and the number of towns summoned had dwindled in 1480 to seventeen. 

133. Alfonso V. (A. D. 1416-1458) resided chiefly in his Italian king- - 
dom, (see § 125,) while his brother, John II. of Aragon, acted as his viceroy 
in Spain, and ultimately inherited the crown. John II. acquired Navarre 
by marrying its heiress, but this increase of dominion was the occasion 



ITALY AND SPAIN. 115 

of many crimes. Upon the death of Queen Blanche, her son Charles was 
the rightful ruler of Navarre, but his father, jealous of his popularity, 
refused him the crown. Charles took refuge with his uncle in Naples, 
and after Alfonso's death went into a humble and studious retirement in 
Sicily. He was called into Spain by false but flattering promises, and 
died, there is reason to believe, from poison administered by the- new 
queen, Joanna. The kingdom of Navarre now rightly belonged to his 
sister Blanche, but it had been promised by treaty to the Count of Foix, 
who had married the next younger sister, Eleanor. The unhappy Blanche 
was betrayed into the keeping of her sister, who caused her to be 
poisoned, A. D. 1464. The brave and free-spirited Catalans, attributing 
some, at least, of these crimes to Joanna, the second wife of John II., 
refused to take oath of allegiance to her son Ferdinand, and a civil war 
of eleven years was the result. The Catalans submitted at last, and John 
dying, A. D. 1479, Ferdinand became king. 

134. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was signalized in both king- 
doms by the reestablishment of order and justice in place of the lawless 
violence of the nobles. According to the good old custom of their 
respective realms, the sovereigns presided in person once a week in courts 
of law, for the especial benefit of their poorer subjects who could not 
afford the expense of ordinary litigation. A heavy blot, however, rests 
upon their reign, in the tribunal of the Inquisition, erected, A. D. 1480, 
as a royal court for the punishment of heresy and kindred offenses. The 
Dominican Inquisition had been merely an ecclesiastical court, and 
both Jews and heretics had been more mildly treated in Spain than 
in any other country. Many of the former had been raised to the 
highest offices in the state, even intrusted with the tutorship of royal 
princes, and their wealth as bankers made them indispensable to many a 
needy king. The just and merciful Isabella long resisted the arbitrary 
policy of her husband and the bigotry of her confessor, but at length she 
yielded, and obtained from Pope Sixtus IV. a bull for the establishment 
of the terrible tribunal in her own kingdom of Castile. In the year 1481, 
two thousand persons were burned alive in Spain, while no fewer than 
17,000 were, in the phrase of the court, "reconciled," i. e., subjected only 
to fine, imprisonment, or other lighter penalties. 

135. A nobler enterprise awaited the Spanish sovereigns in their wars 
with the Moors of Granada. In arts and learning this Arab race was far 
in advance of its Christian neighbors ; the greatest European scholars had 
studied at Cordova, and Arab physicians were in demand at many courts. 
Architecture was earlier developed in the Moorish cities than in central 
Europe, and travelers still wonder at the airy grace of the ruined arches 
of the Alhambra. Dissensions among the Moors themselves hastened the 
fall of their kingdom. Boabdil (Abu Abdallah) rebelled against his aged 



116 MEDIu^VAL HISTORY. 

father the Caliph; but having made a treaty with the Spaniards, was in 
turn opposed by his uncle, Abdallah the Valiant. While the Moorish 
kingdom was thus weakened by civil strife, the combined armies of Cas- 
tile and Aragon steadily advanced. Malaga was taken by a three 
months' siege in 1487. In 1491, Granada, the capital, after a still more 
obstinate defense, surrendered, and all Spain was reunited under Chris- 
tian rule. 

136. All Christendom received the news with joy, regarding the over- 
throw of the Moslem dominion, after nearly eight centuries duration in 
the south-west of Europe, almost as an offset to the establishment of the 
Turkish empire in the south-east. The triumph of the sovereigns was 
sullied by a cruel act of persecution. In spite of the terrible warnings 
of the Inquisition, the great mass of Jews in the kingdom were still firm 
in their faith. An order was now extorted by the clergy from the covet- 
ousness of Ferdinand and the mistaken piety of Isabella, for the expul- 
sion of the whole Hebrew race from the country in which they and 
their fathers had lived for centuries. The best authorities tell us that 
300,000 — some say even 800,000 — refused to barter their religion for the 
privilege of remaining. The harrowing incidents of this sudden and 
enforced emigration must be read elsewhere. Uncounted thousands died 
from shipwreck, starvation, or diseases arising from the ■ fatigues and 
exposures of the voyage. A mother was seen to kill her little child 
rather than endure the sight of its misery. Some of the more hardy 
and enterprising found new homes, where they speedily acquired wealth 
by their industry or fame by their learning. The Turkish Sultan, Bajazet 
II., said derisively of Ferdinand, " You call this a wise sovereign, who 
impoverishes his own kingdom to enrich mine ! " The example of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella was followed by their son-in-law, the King of Portugal, 
who to his edict for the expulsion of the Jews added a still more barba- 
rous order, that all Hebrew children under fourteen years of age should 
be torn from their parents and dispersed throughout his kingdom. 

An account of the discovery of America — the greatest glory of the 
Castilian Queen — is reserved for the modern period. 

House of Aragon becomes supreme in Naples, the Sforzas in Milan, and the Medici 
in Florence. Commercial rivalry of Venice and Genoa. Florence conquers the Tuscan 
ports, becomes celebrated for wealth, freedom, and progress in art. 

Castile subject nearly half a century to the great Constable, Alvaro de Luna. Catalan 
sailors make Aragon a great naval power. By the untimely death of Prince Charles its 
crown descends to his brother Ferdinand ; and the marriage of this prince with Isabella 
of Castile and Leon unites all the Spanish kingdoms. Their reign signalized by estab- 
lishment of the Spanish Inquisition, conquest of the Moors of Granada, expulsion of the 
Jews, and discovery of America. 



CONDITION OF EUROPE. 117 



CONDITION OF EUROPE. 

137. In a review of the thousand years now traversed, great social 
changes will readily be perceived. During the Dark Ages, scarcely more 
than two secular classes, those of warriors and serfs, could be ,^aid to 
exist. Early in the twelfth century cities began to multiply, and a middle 
class, including artisans and traders, became important by its wealth. 
The increasing power of this class may be seen in the rise of municipal 
constitutions in Italy, of the crMes in Spain (A. D. 1188), the parliament 
in England (1265), the states-general in France (1302), and the first rep- 
resentation of the free cities of Germany in the Diet (1309). The 
wealth of the Flemish merchants enabled them especially to purchase 
many popular privileges from sovereigns always in need of money. 

138. A great increase of commerce followed the Crusades. The Italian 
ships which transported armies of pilgrims, brought back gems, spices, 
perfumes, and costly armor from the Asiatic countries. Sugar was first 
introduced into Europe by crusaders. The fertile plain of Lombardy was 
found well adapted to the growth of the cane. Its culture spread to 
Sicily, Spain, the Canary and Madeira Isles, and thence, after the great 
discoveries at the end of the fifteenth century, to the West Indies and 
to America. 

139. The importance of their commercial interests led the cities of 
northern Germany to join in what was called the Hanseatic League for 
common defense. Most of the German knights and many of the highest 
nobles lived by plunder, issuing from their strong castles to rob unoffend- 
ing travelers, and finding refuge within their walls from the pursuit of 
justice. The League, at its greatest extent, included all the trading 
towns between Livonia and Holland; its power was feared and its 
alliance courted by sovereign princes. Its fleets and armies controlled 
the Baltic ; it conquered successively two kings of Norway, deposed a king 
of Sweden, and gave his crown to a duke of Mecklenburg. 

140. The four foreign factories of the League were at London, Bruges, 
Bergen, and Novgorod. The voyage from the Mediterranean to the 
Baltic was too long to be accomplished in one summer, by the imperfect 
navigation of those times. Italian vessels were therefore unladen 
at Bruges, where German ships were waiting to receive the products of 
Asia and the south in exchange for the timber, hemp, fish, and other 
naval stores of the northern countries. Richly laden merchant-trains 
passed overland from the northern cities to Novgorod in Russia, then the 
abode of 300,000 people, and an important center of the art, learning, 
and industry of Europe and Asia. Italian merchants had a monopoly of 
commerce in the southern half of Europe, and from handling the money 
of all nations, naturally became the universal bankers. They were com- 



118 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

mouly called Lombards; and the chief banking street in London still 
bears their name. 

14:1. With the increase of intelligence and enterprise in western 
Europe, manufactures were improved and extended. Italy became noted 
for hej- silks, glass, fine woolens, and jewelry. Spain, beside making 
steel armor, paper, sugar, cotton, and silk, produced and manufactured the 
finest wool. The woolen fabrics of the Netherlands were celebrated as 
early as the twelfth century ; they were woven from English fleeces, and 
were usually coarser and heavier than those of the southern countries. 
Edward III. invited many Flemish weavers into England; by their 
industry the cloth manufacture of that country was founded, which now 
supplies markets never dreamed of in the Middle Ages. The peculiar 
industry of Holland was the packing and exportation of herrings — a 
trade of immense importance at a time when all the world abstained from 
eating flesh during more than one-fourth of the year. 

142. Among the new mechanical arts which contributed most to bring 
in the modern era, were the manufacture of gunpowder, of lin^n paper, 
and of movable types for printing. The first undoubtedly originated in 
the East. Roger Bacon, an English, and Berthold Schwarz, a German 
monk, were the first Europeans who understood the nature of gunpowder; 
but they had learned chemistry from the Arabs, who collected their 
information from the widest extent of the Mohammedan dominions. 
The Chinese used detonating mixtures in fire-works, ages before we have 
any definite account of their employment in war; but very ancient tradi- 
tions in the East describe the discomfiture of enemies by artificial thunders 
and lightnings launched from the walls of cities. Missiles of stone or 
iron projected by gunpowder quickly superseded the use of Greek fire, 
(see Book I., § 41,) as they could be made efiective at longer range. The 
first cannon in Europe were employed by the Moors in their Spanish wars. 

They were used by the English in the battle of Crecy, but 

A. D. 1346. J . J , b J> 

so clumsy was their contrivance, that they served for little 
more than to frighten the horses of the French chivalry. Within 
that and the following century, however, the use of fire-arms had 
wrought a social and political revolution no less marked and moment- 
ous than that in military tactics. Hitherto the knight on his war-horse, 
both encased in steel, had been more than a match for a hundred 
unarmed peasants ; and his stone castle on the hill had defied all assaults 
save those of hunger and thirst. The term of his service in war could 
not exceed forty days, except at his own option. Kings, accordingly, were 
debarred from long and distant wars, for a feudal army was always on the 
point of crumbling to pieces, even at the most decisive moment. 

143. We have seen the rise of standing armies even before the inven- 
tion of fire-arms; and under Louis XL in France they had already 



CONDITION OF EUROPE. 119 

contributed greatly to the consolidation of royal power. The use of gun- 
powder took away still more power from the nobles, to add it to the kings. 
Except to officers in high command, war became a game of chance rather 
than of skill, attended with more danger and less glory than when its 
success depended on the personal prowess of the warrior. Above all, the 
robber-castles yielded to the storm of cannon-balls directed by the armies 
of the Hanse-towns and of the cities on the Ehine. Trade became more 
secure ; and burghei's and nobles met in battle on equal terms. On the 
other hand, standing armies soon became what they have ever since been, 
the instruments of despotism, enabling kings to gratify their ambition at 
the expense of the blood and treasure of their subjects. 

144. The manufacture of paper from linen rags was a humble but 
essential antecedent to the art of printing, for the costliness of parchment 
or vellum was as effectual a barrier to the multiplication of books as the 
labor of transcribing. The first Saracen conquerors learned the art of 
paper-making at Samarcand ; but it was many centuries before some 
European genius discovered that linen would serve for the purpose as 
well as cotton, which was then far more expensive. Printing from solid 
wooden blocks, long common in China, was first introduced into Europe 
for the manufacture of playing cards. The invention of movable types, 
each representing a letter, was the great event which led to the universal 
diffusion of literature. It is variously ascribed to one Dutch and two 
German mechanics near the middle of the fifteenth century; but the 
merit may be pretty accurately divided between them. Laurence Koster 
of Haarlem invented wooden types, and printed from them the Speculum 
Humamji Salvationis, A. D. 1438 ; John Gutenberg of Mentz cut types from 
metal, and began to print the first edition of the Bible, in 1444 ; Peter 
Schceflfer of Gernsheim cast metallic types in 1452. John Fust made 
some improvements in Koster's invention, and aided both Gutenberg and 
Schceffer by his wealth. Within a very few years printing presses were 
found in England, France, Italy, and Spain. Aldus Minutius of Venice 
became especially famous by the elegance of his editions of, the Latin 
classics. 

145. During the darkest periods of the mediaeval centuries, votaries of 
learning had not been wanting. The schools of divinity attached to the 
cathedrals and monasteries nurtured some of the greatest intellects of any 
age; but unhappily the prodigious acquirements of the Schoolmen* 



*The greatest of the Schoolmen were Albert the Great, called the " Universal Doctor;" 
Thomas Aquinas, the "Angelic Doctor;" Bonaventura, the "Seraphic Doctor;" Duns 
Scotus, the " Subtle Doctor ;" and William of Ockham, the " Invincible Doctor." Dean 
Milman says, " The tomes of scholastic divinity may be compared with the pyramids of 
Egypt . . . commanding, from the display of immense human power, yet oppressive, 
from the sense of the waste of that power for no discoverable use. Whoever penetrates 



120 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

were wasted in subtle disquisitions on subjects whicb had no possible 
bearing on human life. A few philosophers, like Albert the Great 
and Roger Bacon, studied physical as well as mental science, but the 
bigotry of their age denounced them as sorcerers. Their geonietric 
circles and triangles were believed to be charms to compel the attendance 
of evil spirits: the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic which they had mastered, 
were easily imagined by the ignorant to be the languages of those 
spirits. Bacon spent the last ten or fifteen years of his life in the 
dungeon of his monastery. 

146. Long before the close of the Crusades, the Universities of Oxford, 
Paris, and Bologna were at the height of their fame. The lectures of 
Abelard are said to have drawn 30,000 students to Paris; those of Roger 
Bacon and later of Duns Scotus, attracted an equal number to Oxford; 
and Bologna counted 10,000 law-students during the twelfth century. 
The possession of a long-lost MS. of Justinian's Pandects, which was discov- 
ered at Amalfi, A. D. 1137 — together with the lectures of Irnerius or 
Werner — made the fame of Bologna as a school of jurisprudence. Most 
of the great German universities were founded during the fourteenth and 
fifteenth centuries. The exclusive prevalence of Latin as the language of 
the learned, enabled scholars to avail themselves of the schools of various 
countries, and in these pilgrimages for knowledge, they were under the 
especial safe-conduct of the emperor. The gown of a scholar was as 
efiectual a security against violence as that of priest or monk ; and the 
license, very commonly received, to support themselves by begging, shows 
poverty to have been the ordinary condition of a life devoted to study. 

147. All the languages now spoken in Europe had reached something 
nearly approaching their present form, before the end of the Middle 
Ages. The Saxon of England was among the first of the Teutonic dia- 
lects to be enriched by a literature, and it was much improved by the 
efibrts of the great Alfred (A. D. 871-901) both as scholar and as king. 
He himself made many translations from the Latin, both of portions of the 
Scriptures and of other books, and he provided for the education of his 
people by establishing schools in all the principal towns, to which every 
Englishman owning a certain portion of land was required to send his 
sons. The Norman conquest brought a new language into polite society, 
but the mass of the people held fast their mother-tongue ; and it was 
only after three centuries that the two elements of speech became blended 
into modern English, as found in the curious travels of Sir John Mande- 
ville, the sermons of Wicliffe, and the poems of Chaucer. 



within, finds himself bewildered and lost in a labyrinth of small, dark, intricate passages, 
devoid of grandeur, devoid of solemnity ; he may wander without end, and find nothing." 

— Latin Christianity, IX.: 118. 



CONDITION OF EUROPE. 121 

148. The Provencal language, formed from Latin as learned and spoken 
by the Burgundian conquerors, possessed the first of the modern litera- 
tures of Europe. Its improvement dates from the accession 

^ ^ A. D. 1092. 

of a count of Barcelona as king of Aries, and the conse- 
quent introduction of a refinement of taste learned from the Arabs of 
Spain. The songs of the troubadours derived a new inspiration from the 
Crusades; the heroes of the holy wars — among whom Richard Cceur de 
Lion is preeminent — were scarcely less proud of their fame as poets than 
as knights. A hundred years later than the troubadours, the trouvlres of 
northern France originated those tales of chivalry which afibrded almost 
all the secular reading in the Middle Ages. Their language differed from 
the Provengal as much, probably, as the Burgundian dialect differed from 
that of the Franks. Both were called Romance — a name which passed 
in time from the language itself to the class of compositions most charac- 
teristic of the first French writers; — but the Romance Wallon spoken 
north of the Loire, was also known as the Langue de Qui, while the 
Romance Provencal Avas the Langue d'Oc; just as the Italian of that 
day was called the Langue de Si, and the German the Langue de Ja, the 
affirmative particle being taken as the point of comparison. The student 
must pursue elsewhere the attractive study of the romances of chivalry — 
works in which the adventurous spirit of the Normans is not less clearly 
displayed than in their conquests in Eussia, Italy, and England. 

149. Modern Italian received its first literary form at the Sicilian court 
of Frederic II., whose chancellor, Peter de Vinea, wrote the earliest 
sonnets; but its perfection is due to the three great Florentines, Dante, 
Petrarch, and Boccaccio, A. D. 1290-1365. The last two seem neither to 
have known nor heeded the influence which they were exerting upon 
their native speech, for the works upon which their fame now rests were 
those which they themselves esteemed the least ; and their chief enthusi- 
asm was given to the revival of the ancient languages. To this end 
Petrarch ransacked the dusty libraries of the convents for lost manu- 
scripts of the Roman authors, and spent many laborious days in bringing 
together scattered fragments and transcribing with his own hand the 
treasures thus secured. The first professorship of Greek at Florence 
was founded A. D. 1360, at the instance of Boccaccio. The ardent 
pursuit of ancient learning, stimulated by the example of these great 
men, delayed the progress of their own Italian language more than a 
century, until Lorenzo de Medici, himself a poet and not 

•" ' ^ A. D. 1469-1492. 

less celebrated for his genius than for his political power 
and influence, gave a fresh impulse both to the literature and art 
of Florence. He, too, was a zealous collector of ancient Mss., gems, and 
statuary, which he placed liberally at the service of all students, and 
thus became the founder of the new school of Italian sculpture, wherein 



122 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 

Michael Angelo holds the highest place. Matthias Corvinus, King of 
Hungary (1458-1490) kept for years a secretary in the library of Lorenzo, 
copying rare manuscripts, and all Europe was benefited sooner or later 
by the wealth, zeal, and liberality of the Florentine citizen. 

150. The revival of ancient learning in the west, of which some scat- 
tered traces may be perceived during the Latin occupation of Constanti- 
nople, but which was greatly accelerated by the fall of that city into the 
hands of the Turks and the escape of scholars with their literary 
treasures, was one of the most efficient causes which brought in the 
modern era. European intellect, long trammeled by the philosophy of 
the schools, learned to take a wider range. The " New Academy " 
founded by Lorenzo de Medici, substituted (at least so far as its influence 
went) the philosophy of Plato for that of Aristotle, which had hitherto 
reigned supreme. The arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture 
shared the general impulse. Four great artists who are considered as the 
revivers of modern art, were at work in Florence near the beginning 
of the fifteenth century. Each was almost equally skillful as architect, 
painter, sculptor, and worker in bronze. They were Ghiberti, Brunel- 
leschi, Masaccio, and Donatello. The first labored forty-nine years upon 
the bronze doors of the baptistery of St. John ; the second, by studying 
the Eoman Pantheon, learned to construct the wonderful dome of the 
Florentine cathedral, and became the first great master of the architecture 
which in Italy superseded the Gothic. Then followed the triumvirate 
of modern art, the three whose works taken together have never been 
surpassed : Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, and Raphael. Their 
chief productions belong, however, to the next century ; and in any case 
our limits barely admit a mention of their names. The subject may be 
pursued in the biographies of the several artists, and in many books 
concerning the history and criticism of art. 

E,EC-A^I=ITTTIj.A.a?I03Sr. 

Increased importance of the middle class through multiplication of cities and extension 
of commerce, distinguish the last four centuries of the mediaeval period. Products of the 
East enrich western Europe after the Crusades. Power and extent of the Hanseatic 
League. Bruges its chief center of trade with the south ; Novgorod with the east. Italians 
the merchants and bankers for a great part of Europe. Importance of the woolen manu- 
facture in Spain, Italy, England, and Flanders. Use of gunpowder brought from China 
by the Saracens, leads to the decline of the feudal system in Europe. Manufacture of 
linen paper and invention of printing effect a revolution in the literary world. 

Learning of the Schoolmen contrasted with the ignorance of the masses. Rise of the 
great universities : Paris noted for theology ; Oxford for philosophy ; Bologna for law. 
Privileges and poverty of students. Anglo-Saxon language improved by Alfred ; Anglo- 
Norman by Wicliffe, MandeviUe, and Chaucer; Provencal by the troubadours^; French by 
the trouvhres; Italian by poets of the Sicilian court, and later, by Dante, Petrarch, and 
Boccaccio. Revival of ancient learning and art in Italy during 15th century ; influence of 
the Medici ; Florence the scene of the Renaissance. 



THE MOHAMMEDAN EMPIRES. 123 

The Mohammedan Empie.es. 

151. For the sake of brevity, we insert here a connected view of the 
principal Mohammedan empires in Asia, though they embrace a period 
both earlier and later than that which we have reached. 1. The Gazne- 
vides, Gaurides, Afghans, and Moguls in India; 2. The remaining Mon- 
gol or Mogul dominions of Zenghis Khan and Timour; 3. The Seljuk- 
ian dynasties; 4. The Ottoman or present Turkish power. 

152. The Gaznevides took their name from Gazna, a town on one of 
the branches of the Indus, where their founder, a rebellious governor of 
Khorassan, took refuge with his followers, A. D. 961. Mahmoud, the 
third of the line, not only extended his power westward to the Tigris and 
the Caspian, and received the title of Sultan from the Caliph at Bagdad; 
but by twelve expeditions into Hindustan, established the first Moham- 
medan empire in that great peninsula. He destroyed the pagoda at 
Sumnaut, whose pillars were covered with gold and resplendent with 
jewels. The huge idol of this temple was formed of a single stone fifty 
cubits in height, and the traditions of the Brahmins declared that it had 
been worshiped on that spot between four and five thousand years. Fifty 
thousand devotees sacrificed their lives in its defense, but the image was 
at length broken in pieces and found to contain untold wealth in diamonds 
and rubies. The demolition of hundreds of pagodas and thousands of 
idols between the Indus and the Ganges bore witness to the stern icono- 
clasm of Mahmoud. 

153. Within two hundred years from its foundation, the Gaznevide 
Empire was dismembered, and a great part of its Indian 
territories conquered by Mohammed of Gaur, who plundered 

Benares, the most holy place of Hindu superstition, and . fixed the seat 
of Moslem dominion at Lahore. Upon his death a new Afghan dynasty 
gained the greater part of India, and removed the capital to the more 
central city of Delhi. The second of the Afghan emperors conquered 
Bengal, but lost his Persian and Tartar dominions to the successors of 
Zenghis Khan. For two centuries the wealth of the emperors at Delhi 
drew upon them continual attacks from the Mongols; but the most 
destructive inroad of these invaders was led by Timour* in A. D. 1399. 
Crossing the Hindu Kush, with 90,000 horsemen, this Tartar chief pene- 
trated to the plain of Delhi ; conquered the city in a great battle and 
gave it over to his followers, who loaded themselves with its enormous 
wealth ; 100,000 captives, who had impeded his march, had already been 
massacred in cold blood ; and multitudes of unarmed pilgrims to the 
Ganges fell victims to the wanton cruelty of his followers. 



* Often called Tamerlane = Timour Lenk, or the Lame. 



124 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

154. Timour founded no permanent empire in India. The Afghan 
dynasty ended fourteen years after his invasion, with the death of Mah- 
moud. The several governors of provinces set up independent sovereign- 
ties, and it was reserved for Baber, a descendant of Timour, 

A. D. 1530. ' . ' . . ' 

to unite them all in the great Mogul Empire. His grand- 
son Akbar, by his wise, liberal, and beneficent policy, gained and de- 
served the title, " Guardian of Mankind." By Shah Jehan, one of his 
descendants, Delhi was restored to its former magnificence ; but it was 
under Aurungzebe (A. D. 1658-1707) that the Mogul Empire reached 
its greatest power and extent'. Its rapid decline began with his death. 
Nadir Shah, the usurper of the Persian throne, was invited into Hin- 
dustan by conspirators against the house of Timour, and subjected Delhi 
to a massacre which surpassed the most horrid scenes in the career of 
his predecessors. Like Timour he founded no dynasty, but left the 
Mogul Empire to perish by its own weakness. 

155. Zenghis Khan (A. D. 1154-1227) one of the most remarkable of 
the Scythian adventurers, founded an empire, which, under his descend- 
ants, extended over nearly all Asia, and a great part of eastern Europe, 
forming the most extensive dominion that the world has ever seen. The 

conquest of China was completed by his fourth descend- 
ant, Kublai Khan, who also conquered Burmah, Cochin 
China, and Tonquin. At his court the Venetian, Marco Polo, was liber- 
ally entertained; he received also an embassy from the Pope, and per- 
mitted Christian missionaries to establish themselves in China. The 
Mongol dynasty was overthrown, A. D. 1368, by a revolution following a 
famine in which 13,000,000 of people are said to have perished. A 
Buddhist monk managed to put himself at the head of the movement, 
and founded the Ming dynasty, which reigned 276 years, until it was 
overthrown by the Mantchoo Tartars, 1644. The present dynasty, which 
is still considered foreign by the mass of the people, is of the Mantchoo 
race. 

156. In the west, the descendants of Zenghis had meanwhile over- 
thrown the Abbassides of Bagdad and extended their forays to the 
Adriatic, the borders of Germany, and the frozen shores of the Arctic 
. ^ ,„., Ocean. Kiev, Moscow, Cracow, and Lublin were burned; 

A. D. 1241. ^77 

and in the great battle of Liegnitz, the Duke of Silesia, 
the Polish Palatine, and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights 
were defeated. Moravia, Silesia, and Hungary were laid waste, and 
Russia became tributary to the "Golden Horde." Towards the end of 
the thirteenth century the Mongol Empire in the west was broken up into 
many distinct sovereignties. It was reunited for a season by Timour, 
whose career of conquest was only second to that of Zenghis himself. 
He subdued the various Tartar tribes of central Asia, reduced Persia 



THE MOHAMMEDAN EMPIRES. 125 

to submission, and came in collision with the Ottoman Empire near 
the Euphrates. 

157. But Bajazet for a time found a nearer interest in the siege of 
Constantinople — Timour in the conquest of Syria; and it was not until 
July, 1402, that the two Moslem powers encountered each other upon the 
plains of Angora. Bajazet was defeated and a prisoner, and there is 
reason to believe that he passed the few months which intervened 
between his capture and his death in an iron cage. No proof of 
Timour's cruelty could appear incredible to those who saw the pyramids 
of human heads which marked the scene of his victories. A rebellion 
in Bagdad was avenged by the slaughter of 90,000 human beings. Yet 
this savage delighted in the conversation of learned men, and in the 
elegancies of art with which he adorned his capital, Samarcand. At 
this magnificent city in the wilderness, embassadors from Europe and 
Asia were constantly in attendance on the great sovereign, whom they 
propitiated by costly gifts. 

158. The Seljukian dominion was short-lived, its flourishing period 
covering little more than half the eleventh century; but moa-inqa 
during that time twelve hundred subject kings or princes 
surrounded the throne of the Sultan, and prayers were offered for him in 
the mosques of Jerusalem and Mecca, as well as at Ispahan, Samarcand, 
Bokhara, and Kashgar. Seljuk, a Turkish chief, about A. D. 980, drew 
to his standard the disaffected members of many tribes north and east of 
the Caspian, and set up an independent court at Samarcand. His grand- 
son, Togrol Beg, (see § 2,) gained a great victory at Zendecan, A. D. 1038, 
over the Gaznevide sultan, Massoud, and conquered Persia and Korasmia. 
By defending the caliph at Bagdad against the Fatimite sovereign of 
Egypt and the rebellious emirs of Syria, Togrol gained the high-sounding 
title of " Lieutenant of the Vicar of the Prophet," a title which bore 
.with it all temporal sovereignty in the Abbassid dominions. The Tartar 
chief was indeed better able to wield the sword for the common defense 
than his reverend but feeble superior. He made plundering forays into 
Georgia and Armenia, and invaded the Greek Empire, but the conquest 
of these provinces was reserved for his nephew and successor. Alp Arslan. 

159. In three campaigns the emirs of this sultan were beaten by the 
Emperor Romanus, but when Alp Arslan took the field in person, the 
emperor was in turn defeated and made a prisoner. He was treated with 
the respect and sympathy due to his character and misfortunes, and was 
released with great generosity ; but his subjects refused either to pay his 
ransom or to acknowledge a captive for their sovereign ; and the king of 
Armenia, in whose cause Eomanus had engaged in the war, imprisoned 
him in a monastery for the rest of his days. The victorious career of Alp 
Arslan was ended by the dagger of an assassin, and his son, Malek Shah, 



126 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

received the titles of Sultan and Commander of the Faithful. This 
descendant of Scythian nomads was the greatest prince of his age. Not 
only mosques, but roads, bridges, colleges, hospitals, and asylums for every 
sort of misfortune, were among the results of his enlightened and benefi- 
cent reign. He reformed the Moslem calendar which had fallen into 
confusion ; and twelve times made the entire tour of his dominions to 
administer justice and redress wrongs. In his wars with the Byzantine 
emperors, Malek was once a prisoner, and once had his opponent in his 
own hands ; but he freely dismissed him and sent him with an honorable 
escort within the Greek lines. The conquest of Asia Minor was effected 
by Solyman, an officer and kinsman of Malek, who permitted him to 
govern it as " King of Roum." His capital was first at Nice, afterwards 
at Iconium. (See §§ 9, 20.) Jerusalem was captured by the lieutenants 
of Malek, but it soon fell under the independent sovereignty of the emir 
Ortok, then Avas retaken by the Fatimite caliphs, and lastly by the 
crusaders. The Seljukian empire rapidly declined after the death of 
Malek, and its fragments were ultimately absorbed into the dominion of 
Zenghis Khan. 

160. The Khorasmian or Ottoman Turks are the latest arrived among 
the ruling races of Europe ; yet the empire which they erected on the 
three continents which surround the Mediterranean has been more lasting 
than that of any of the more splendid Moslem dynasties. At the begin- 
ning of the 14th century they entered Asia Minor, and enlisted in the 
service of the sultan of Iconium. Othman, the son of Orthugrul, was the 
real founder of the empire which bears his name. Having conquered 
the cities of Nicomedia, Nice, and Brusa, he made the latter his capital, 
and adorned it with a mosque, a college, and a hospital. Professors of 
Persian and Arabic learning, drawn thither by his patronage, showed that 
civilization had already made progress among the barbarians from the 
Tartar plains. Orchan, son of Othman, captured Gallipoli on the opposite 

shore of the Hellespont, and Amurath I., his successor, con- 
A. D. 1360-1389. r ) > ^ > 

quered Thrace and fixed the capital of his European do- 
minions at Adrianople. 

The city of Constantine, thus surrounded, seemed an easy prey, but Amu- 
rath first subdued the Slavonian nations of Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, and 
Albania ; and by the institution of the Janizaries, laid a firm foundation 
for the future extension of his empire. From his multitudes of Christian 
captives he selected the strongest and most beautiful youth to be trained 
for his armies. Thus arose the first regular infantry in Europe ; and 
their constant and rigorous discipline made them long the most efiective 
soldiery on any field. Trained from childhood or early youth in the 
Mohammedan religion, and treated with marked favor by the sultans, the 
Janizaries were usually unswerving in their new allegiance ; but in some 



THE MOHAMMEDAN EMPIRES. 127 

instances they turned against their captors the weapons which they had 
gained in their service.* 

161. Bajazet I. (1389-1403) bore the surname llderim, or the Lightning. 
His fame filled Europe with terror, especially when in the 

battle of Nicopolis he had defeated and slain the bravest 
chivalry of Christendom. An army of 100,000 men, led by Sigismund, 
then king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, was hopelessly overthrown ; 
but the precarious existence of the Eastern Empire was prolonged by the 
defeat and death of Bajazet himself in his war with Timour. (See § 157.) 
Mohammed I., the youngest son of Bajazet, retrieved the fortunes of his 
family; Amurath II. again defeated the combined forces of Christendom 
at Varna and Cossova : and under Mohammed II., the 

' ' A. D. 1453. 

empire of the eastern Caesars was finally overthrown. Not 

only Constantinople, but the Greek islands and peninsula became the 

prey of the Asiatic hosts. 

162. For more than a century, from Mohammed II. to Solyman the 
Magnificent, the Turks were ruled by a rare succession of able princes, 
whose power was a perpetual menace to the peace of Europe, while they 
maintained within their own borders a vigorous and orderly discipline. 
The most intolerable of their impositions upon their Christian subjects 
was the child-tribute, which recruited the ranks of the Janizaries, after 
the supply of captives taken in war became insufiicient. With Selim, 
the successor of Solyman, the Ottoman dynasty began to decline, and 
the Janizaries were commonly the real rulers of the empire, until, within 
our own century, their power was broken by a terrible slaughter. The 
main events of modern Turkish history will be indicated in their proper 
places. 

163. In Egypt, the line of Fatimite caliphs ended, A. D. 1171, with 
the rise of Saladin. (See § 19.) A later sultan, Malek Sala, bought a 
large number of captives from Zenghis Khan, and trained them, under 
the name of Mamelukes for his own body-guard. But the Mamelukes 
dethroned his successor, and set up their own leader, Ibeg, in his place. 



*The most noted exaraple was George Castriot, the son of an Albanian prince, who with 
his brothers became in childhood a captive to the Turks, and was educated as a Mussul- 
man. His Turkish name, Scanderbeg, (Iskender Beg, meaning Lord Alexander,) indicates 
the military fame which gained him the favor of Amurath II. (A. D. 1421-1451.) At 
the age of 44, however, he suddenly abjured Mohammedanism and the service of the 
sultan, resumed his Christian namie, and declared himself the avenger of his family and 
people. With his hereditary subjects between the mountains and the Adriatic, and an 
army of French and German adventurers whom he attracted by his valor and fortune, he 
held out twenty-three years against the Ottoman Empire ; but died at last a fugitive in the 
Venetian territories, A. D. 1467. His nation ended with his life. Not so his fame, for the, 
Turkish soldiers who rifled his tomb, made amulets of his bones, which, they believed, 
conferred invincible courage on whomsoever possessed them. 



128 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

The first line of these military sovereigns were called Bahree or Eiver 
Mamelukes, from having been trained upon an island in the Nile. They 
took into their pay another band of Georgians and Circassians, called 
Borghees, who in turn deposed the Bahree sultan, and raised Barkook, 
their commander, to the throne, A. D. 1387. The Borghees ruled until 
1517, when they were deposed by the Ottoman Turks, and Egypt became 
a dependency of Constantinople. But Mameluke Beys were intrusted 
with the government of twenty-four provinces, and by their numerous 
guards retained the real power, while the viceroys or pashas enjoyed 
only the shadow. 

Gaznevide and Gauride dynasties successively destroy the idols and enrich themselves 
with the wealth of the Hindus. Afghan emperors, succeeding, make Delhi the capital- 
are defeated and plundered but not dethroned by Timour. After the dissolution of their 
dominion, his descendant, Baber, establishes the great Mogul Empire, which culminates in 
Aurungzebe and suddenly declines at his death. Zenghis Khan and his family found the 
most extensive empire which the world has seen. Kublai Khan conquers China; the 
Golden Horde desolate eastern Europe. Timour conquers the Ottoman Bajazet and im- 
prisons him in an iron cage. 

The Seljukian dominion of great extent but short duration. Malek Shah the most 
powerful monarch of his time. 

Ottoman Turks conquer all the territories of the Eastern Empire, while the Caesars still 
reign in the capital. In the battle of Nicopolis they destroy the bravest and noblest 
defenders of Christendom. Corps of the Janizaries formed of Christian captives. Con- 
stantinople taken, A. D. 1453. 

Dominion of the Mamelukes in Egypt gives way only nominally to that of the Turkish 
viceroys. 



QTJESTIOlSrS FOR REVIE^SV. 

Book II. 

1. What changes in the 11th century among the Mohammedan rulers of 

the east? ?? 1- 2, 158, 159. 

2. What motives and influences led to the Crusades? . . Book I., 88, Book II., 3-5. 

3. Describe the numbers, character, and fate of the first crusaders, ... 7. 

4. Give a brief outline of the eight holy wars, . . .... 7-40. 

5. What emperors, kings, and royal princes were engaged? 8, 9, 16, 20, 22, 33, 35, 38, 40, 41. 

6. Describe the first king of Jerusalem 8, 12. 

7. His kingdom at its least and greatest extent, 13. 

8. What other Christian principalities were formed in the east ? . . . . 9, 21, 41. 

9. Tell the history of the three principal religious orders of knights, 

14, 19, 20- 37, 39, 42, 47, 85-87. 

10. How many crusades were directed to Egypt? 34, 38. 

11. Tell the history of the Latin Empire at Constantinople 27-30. 

12. Describe the results of the crusades, 44^6. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 129 

13. What principles were involved in the strife of Guelfs and Ghibellines? . §§51, 58. 

14. Describe the relations of emperors and popes during the time of the 

crusades, 48, 49, 51, 59. 

15. Of the emperors with the Italian cities, 52-55. 

16. Name the emperors of the house of Hohenstaufen, 51-60. 

17. Describe the character and career of Frederic Barbarossa, . . . .20, 52-55. 

18. Of Frederic II., 35, 36, 56-59. 

19. The ascendency of the French in Italy, 60, 61. 

20. What changes in the Empire after the death of Frederic II.? ... 62. 

21. By what means did the Baltic countries become civilized? . . .47, 49, 54, 83. 

22. Describe the first Plantagenet king of England, and the extent of his 

dominions, 63, 64. 

23. Tell the history of Kichard I., 22-24, 65. 

24. How and from whom were the Great Charters of Hungary and England 

obtained? . . . 65, 66, 84. 

25. In what circumstances was the first English parliament assembled? . . 67. 

26. Describe the policy of Edward I. in Wales and Scotland, .... 68. 

27. What changes in France during 12th and 13th centuries? .... 69-73. 

28. Describe -the character and acts of St. Louis, 38, 48, 72. 

29. Name the chief religious orders at the end of the Crusades 75, 76. 

30. Describe the Inquisition, 77. 

31. The secret tribunal of Westphalia, 78. 

32. Sketch the condition of the European countries at the end of the 13th century, 80, 81. 

33. What changes during that century in Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland? . 84. 

34. Describe the reign of Boniface VIII., 82. 

35. What was meant by the Babylonish Captivity of the Popes ? . . . . 85. 

36. What was the great Schism in the western Church? 100, 115. 

37. Describe the Rise of the Swiss Republics, 88. 

38. The Emperor Henry VII. and his immediate successors, . . 89, 90. 

39. What led to the accession of the Valois in France? 91. 

40. Describe the English wars and the principal battles, . . . . 91, 102, 103. 

41. Tell the story of Joan d'Arc, 103, 104. 

42. What is said of Philip, Duke of Burgundy? . lOl. 

43. What led to the change from feudal to modern methods in war? . . 102, 142. 

44. What occasioned the Wars of the Roses in England? 105. 

45. Describe the character and policy of Louis XL in France, . . . 107, 108, 110. 

46. Of Charles of Burgundy, 109. 

47. Name the kings of France, A. D. 987-1498, Book I. 86 ; II. 69-73, 81, 91, 95, 96, 103, 107, 110. 

48. Of England, A. D. 1066-1485, . . 63 and note, 65, 67, 68, 87, 91, 96, 105, 106. 

49. What can you tell of the duchy of Brittany? . . . . . . .95. 111. 

50. Give an outline of the history of Naples, .... 56-58, 60, 61, 96, 100, 125. 

51. Describe the constitution of the Empire under Charles IV 112. 

52. Name the three emperors who succeeded Charles 114. 

53. The first religious reformers in England and Bohemia, . . 115. 

54. Tell the history of the Council of Constance 116, 117. 

55. Of the religious wars in Bohemia, . . .... 118. 

56. What were the chief acts of the Council of Basle? 118-20. 

57. Of that of Ferrara? . 119. 

58. Describe the progress of the Turks in eastern Europe, . . . 122-124, 160-163. 

59. Sketch the history of Milan, Book I., 97; IL, 53, 94, 126, 

60. Of Venice, Book I., 94 ; IL, 26-29, 43, 47, 124, 127. 

61. Of Genoa, . . Book L, 96; IL, 43, 128. 

62. Of Florence, 129, 130, 149, 150. 

€3. Of the Spanish kingdoms 81, 131-135. 

64. Of the Jews in medieval Europe 6, 81, 99, 136. 

M. H. 9. 



130 



medijEVal history. 



65. Describe the commerce and manufactures of the Middle Ages, . .§? 138-141. 

66. What changes preceded the modern era? 79, 137. 

67. Describe the universities and their students, 146. 

68. The invention of printing, 144. 

69. Mediaeval scholarship and the revival of ancient learning, .... 145, 150. 

70. In v^rhat order were the modern European languages formed ? . . . 147-149. 

71. How many Mohammedan dynasties have ruled India? 151-154. 

72. Describe the successive conquests of China, . . 155. 

73. The Mongols in Europe and western Asia 156, 157. 

74. Tell the history of the Seljukian empire 158, 159. 

75. Of the Ottoman Turks 160, 161. 

76. Of the Mamelukes, . 162. 



HOUSES OP YORK AND LANCASTER. 
Edwaed III. 



Edward, Black Prince. Lionel, d. of Clarence. John, d. of Lancaster. Edmund, d. of York. 
I _ I 



Richard II. 



Philippa, m. earl of 

I March. 
Roger Mortimer, earl 
I of March. 



Heney IV. 

I 

Heney V. 



Edmund. Anne, m. (2d) son of d. of York. Heney VI. 

Richard, d. of York. 

I ! ■ 

Edwaed IV. Richard III. George, d. of Clarence. 

1 
Edwaed V. 



John Beaufort, earl of 

D Somerset. 
John Beaufort, duke of 
I Somerset. 

Margaret, m. Edmund Tudor, 

5 earl of Richmond. 
Heney VII (Tudor). 



Richard, d. of York. 



Elizabeth, married King Henry VII. 



BOOK III. 



THE modee:nt eea, 

Feom the Discovery of Ameeica to the Close op the Thirty 

Years' War. 

A. D. 1492-1648. 
DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS. 

1. OuE study has hitherto been confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, 
and mainly to that small north-western portion of its vast extent which 
is covered by the continent of Europe. We now approach the unveiling 
of lands long hidden from the civilized world, though vague surmises 
concerning them may be found in ancient literature, and during the 
Dark Ages several adventurous seamen doubtless reached their shores — 
never, however, to return and increase the general knowledge by a record 
of their observations. 

2. The few existing traces of the earliest inhabitants of the New 
World may well engage the ingenuity of antiquarians, but form at present 
no part of history. The structure of the American continent would 
seem to have insured its being discovered and introduced to the rest of 
the world by inhabitants of Europe rather than of Asia. The precipitous 
mountain barriers of the western coast are strongly contrasted with the 
broad and gradual slope, the deep bays, excellent harbors, and numerous 
navigable rivers of the eastern. That part of America which most resem- 
bles Europe lies nearest to it, and seems to have invited discovery. An 
Icelandic colony was formed in New England near the end of the tenth 
century ; but all intercourse with the parent country having ceased, the 
settlers must have become absorbed into the native tribes ; and when the 
renewed enterprise of the sixteenth century again brought Europeans to 
that region, their descendants, if any survived, were undistinguishable, 
either in color or customs, from the native savages of the coast. 

(131) 



132 MODERN HISTORY. 

3. The polarity of the magnet, and its application in the mariner's 
compass, were known in western Europe early in the twelfth century; 
but it was reserved for the fifteenth, with its extraordinary reawakening 
of human thought and enterprise, to commence the great era of maritime 
discovery. The Portuguese, as was natural, from their western position 
looking out upon the Atlantic, were pioneers in the exploration of 
unknown seas. The Catalans had, indeed, preceded them by passing, 
A. D. 1346, the hitherto impassable point of Cape Non ; and French 
seamen from Dieppe had penetrated, in 1364, to Sierra Leone and Eio 
Sestos. About the same time the Spaniards, partly by accident, discov- 
ered the Fortunate or Canary Islands, which were conquered and settled 
in successive expeditions from 1393 to 1495. 

4. Prince Henry, fourth son of John I. of Portugal, gave to Europe 
the first example of a truly royal patronage of nautical science. At his 
residence near Cape St. Vincent, where the waves of the mysterious 
ocean almost washed the base of his observatory, he called together 
learned men from all countries, especially those who were skilled in 
astronomy and the mathematics of navigation, and consulted them con- 
cerning his favorite schemes. His liberal enterprises were rewarded by 
the discovery, A. D. 1419, of the Madeiras, and later of the Azores and 
Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Guinea. 

5. The Roman pontiffs, as heirs of the Caesars, claimed the right to 
dispose of all islands and newly discovered lands. At the request of the 
king of Portugal, Pope Eugenius IV. published a bull, adding to that 
monarchy all the countries between Cape Non and India ! Hitherto the 
products of Asia had been brought into western Europe by Venetian 
vessels from Alexandria. The Portuguese now surmised a sea route to 
India, and in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz actually passed the "Cape of 
Storms," which from this happy success received its new name of " Good 

Hope." The great admiral, Vasco de Gama, following the 

A. D. 1497 ^ *= ^ -r^ 1 T T 

same course, was the first European to enter the Indian 
Ocean. In spite of many difficulties and dangers, he explored the Malabar 
coast, and returned to Portugal, bearing not only a precious cargo of 
gold and spices, but wonderful reports of the wealth and civilization 
of that populous region. 

6. The hostility of the Mohammedan rulers of India compelled the 
newcomers to put forth all their naval force in order to obtain a foothold 
and a share in the trade with the tribes of the interior ; but the fort and 
factories established at Cochin soon became the cradle of a great com- 
mercial empire, whose power was felt from China to the Red Sea. Its 
most flourishing seat was the Isle of Ormuz, where semi-annual fairs 
transformed the salt and barren rock into almost the fabled splendor and 
luxury of an Oriental palace. Goa, the more permanent capital of the 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS. 133 

Portuguese dominion, still displays in its stately churches, warehouses, 
and deserted dwellings, a remnant of that magnificence which gave it 
the title of " the Golden." The opening of the maritime route to India, 
though of less historical interest, was of greater immediate importance 
than the discovery of America. It revolutionized the commerce of Europe 
and contributed more than any other cause to the decline of Venice. 

7. It is remarkable that the two great maritime republics of Italy 
furnished the two discoverers of the western continent, and by opening 
the navigation of the Atlantic gave another fatal blow to their own 
Mediterranean commerce. Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, 
spurred to emulation by the success of the Portuguese, conceived it possi- 
ble to reverse their route and reach India by sailing westward. Bits of 
carved wood, logs, and even two human bodies of unfamiliar complexion 
washed up by the waves upon the shores of Madeira and the Azores, 
convinced him that some unknown continent was not far distant. The 
spherical form of the earth — though denied by the Church, and distinctly 
afiirmed by only a few bold thinkers, like the Archbishop of Cambray— 
afforded the basis of his calculations. 

8. Many painful years were spent in imploring aid from the govern- 
ments of Genoa, Portugal, England, and Spain. At last, Isabella of 
Castile exclaimed, "I will undertake the enterprise for mine own crown, 
and if it be needful I will pawn my jewels to defray the expense." Colum- 
bus was made High Admiral and Viceroy of all the lands which he might 
discover, and secured in one-tenth of the net profits of trade with the 
same. Three small ships were placed at his disposal, and he set sail 
from Palos, Aug. 3, 1492. After stopping at the Canaries to refit, the 
little squadron pushed westward into those unknown regions which were 
peopled with indescribable terrors for the ignorant and superstitious 
seamen. Just as their discontent was breaking out into dangerous mu- 
tiny, the glad sound of " Land ahead !" was heard. They were approach- 
ing one of the Bahamas, now known as St. Salvador. Eeverently kneeling 
on the shore, the great discoverer gave thanks for safety and success, 
and took possession of the land in the name of the Spanish sovereigns. 

9. The larger islands of Hayti and Cuba were discovered during the 
subsequent four months. Believing that he had arrived in the Indies, 
Columbus called the natives Indians, and these names qualified by the 
epithet " West," are still applied to the islands and people. Having 
built and garrisoned the little fort of La Navidad in Hayti, the Admiral 
sailed for Europe, carrying with him plants, animals, and some of the 
native men as proofs of his success and specimens of the products of the 
newly discovered countries. A storm drove him into the Tagus, where 
King John II. — though mortified by his own former rejection of an enter- 
prise which had now proved so gloriously successful — received the Admiral 



134 MODERN HISTORY. 

with distinguished honors. Seven months and eleven days from his 
departure, the ships of Columbus reentered the port of Palos. All the 
bells of the village rang joyously, while its entire population accom- 
panied the Admiral and his crew to the principal church; and thanks 
were offered as for persons rescued from the grave. Their progress 
through Spain was marked by the joy and wonder of all the people, and 
their entry into Barcelona, then the residence of the court, was like a 
Eoman triumph. Multitudes thronged to see the discoverer of a " new 
world." The sovereigns received him with honors never before paid 
to mere intellectual greatness, unsupported by rank, fortune, or military 
renown. The natives in his train were immediately baptized, and the 
hope of extending to their race the blessings of Christianity was the 
strongest motive which engaged the pure and lofty spirit of Isabella in 
the further prosecution of discoveries. Letters of the time describe the 
impulse suddenly given to the imagination of all Europe by the great 
and unexpected event. Men congratulated each other on having lived 
to see a day when the bounds of human knowledge were widened by 
the opening of such vast new fields for observation. 

10. An India-house was immediately established at Seville and a 
Custom-house at Cadiz, under the direction of a new Board of Trade. 
The Pope, Alexander VI., magnanimously conferred upon the Spanish 
sovereigns all lands then or thereafter to be discovered in the western 
seas ; which territories were to be divided from those of Portugal by an 
imaginary line passing due north and south, a hundred leagues west of the 
Azores. The possibility of the Spaniards in their westward voyages 
coming into collision with the Portuguese who sailed toward the south 
and east, did not disturb the calculations of his Holiness. 

11. Detaining by skillful diplomacy a fleet which King John of Portu- 
gal was sending forth in the hope of retrieving his mistake, Isabella 
hastened the departure of Columbus on his second voyage. Seventeen 
ships were now at his disposal, and from the multitude of applicants for 
enrollment in his service, it had been difficult to exclude all but fifteen 
hundred. With high hopes cheered by the acclamations of the crowd, 
this fleet sailed from Cadiz, Sept. 25, 1493. The treaty of Tordesillas, 
concluded with Portugal the following June, removed the partition 
line between the foreign possessions of the two nations to 370 leagues 
westward of the Azores — a most important transaction, since it confirmed 
the Portuguese in their subsequent claims to Brazil. 

12. The second voyage of Columbus was rewarded by the discovery 
of Jamaica and of many of the Caribbee Islands. His colony in Hayti 
had been cut off by the natives in just vengeance for unprovoked 
outrages ; but he planted a new town, Avhich received the name Isajctella, 
in honor of the queen. The fatal discovery of gold dust in Hayti, 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS. 135 

diverted the attention of the Spaniards from agriculture and regular 
trade ; and eventually brought to the West Indies an indolent and worth- 
less crowd of adventurers, who sought only to repair their wasted for- 
tunes at the expense of the unfortunate natives. These mild and friendly 
people, who in their ignorance had welcomed the first white men as 
messengers from heaven, were soon undeceived. The tax of a certain 
quantity of gold dust imposed upon each was an unjustifiable extortion; 
but it was only changed for the iniquitous system of ripartimientos, by 
which a number of natives was assigned to each settler, and compelled 
to render personal service in lieu of tribute. Feeble in body and mind, 
accustomed to live indolently upon the spontaneous products of the 
soil, and strangers to the consuming thirst for gold which animated their 
masters, the people rapidly sank under the labors of the mines. At one 
time their intolerable sufferings drove them into a revolt in which sev- 
eral hundreds of thousands perished. In the space of fifteen years, the 
population of Hayti was reduced by disease or violence from 1,000,000 
to 60,000. 

13. In his third voyage Columbus touched the American continent 
near the mouth of the Orinoco, and coasted the provinces , ^ ^^„„ 

^ _ A. D. 1498. 

since called Para and Cumana. But the grandeur of his 
discoveries only increased the envy and hatred of the Spanish cavaliers, 
whose misconduct would long before, have destroyed the colony but for 
the severe coercive measures of the Admiral. Such loud complaints 
reached the Spanish sovereigns that a commissioner with full powers 
was sent to investigate the affairs of the colony. The narrow mind 
of Bobadilla was unbalanced by a little brief authority, and without a 
show of justice he caused the Admiral to be seized and sent to Spain 
in irons! The noble queen hastened to soothe the wounds which this 
insolence had inflicted, by reinstating Columbus in all his honors, and 
assuring him in many delicate ways of her unshaken confidence and 
gratitude. 

14. His fourth voyage was undertaken in the hope of finding a passage 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, which might afford a westward 
route to India. After coasting through the Gulf of Honduras, he was 
compelled by storms and the mutinous spirit of his men to abandon his 
design. He was subsequently shipwrecked upon the coast 

of Jamaica ; and returning to Spain had the grief tp find 
that his faithful friend, the queen, was upon her death-bed. Her hue- 
band, the covetous and ungrateful Ferdinand, evaded the payment to 
Columbus of his just share in the reward of his labors, until the great 
Admiral, worn out with disappointments, died in poverty at Valladolid, 
His tomb at Seville bore, by order of Ferdinand, the inscription : "To 
Castile and Leon, Columbus gave a Ne-:,' World." His remains were 



136 MODERN HISTORY. 

afterward removed to the hemisphere he had discovered, to rest in the 
cathedral at Havana. The continent, almost by accident, received the 
name of a Florentine adventurer, Amerigo Vespucci. 

15. The singular achievements and misfortunes of Columbus have 
merited a more detailed description than can be afforded to the other 
explorers. One year before the discovery of the South American conti- 
nent, Sebastian Cabot, the son of a Venetian merchant, though in the 
service of Henry VH. of England, explored the North American coast 
from Lat. 67*° to 38.° The Portuguese Cabral in A. D. 1500, having 
taken an unusually westerly course in a voyage to India, discovered the 
rich and fertile country of Brazil, and took possession in the name of 
King Emmanuel I. It had been previously visited by Pinzon, a friend 
and former companion of Columbus, but in pursuance of the treaty of 
Tordesillas, above mentioned, it was resigned by the Spaniards. In the 
service of the same king of Portugal, Gaspar Cortereal explored the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coast of Labrador to the entrance of 
Hudson Bay. 

16. Diego Columbus, being invested in 1509 with his hereditary 

viceroyalty of the New World, projected the conquest and colonization 

of Cuba, which were accomplished in 1511. The next year the veteran 

Juan Ponce de Leon undertook at his own cost an explora- 
A. D. 1512. . , . ,. . 

tion of the mainland, being led by a romantic tradition to 

seek there a fountain of perpetual youth. Near the present town of 
St. Augustine, he reached a coast which, either from its flowery appear- 
ance or from the circumstance of his arrival on Palm Sunday, he 
called Florida. In 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, with 290 Spaniards, 
crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and, first of Europeans, looked upon the 
Pacific from its western border. Advancing in full armor into its 
waters, he vowed as a true knight to conquer and defend them for the 
king of Spain. 

17. Six years later Hernando Cortez, with less than 600 men, under- 
took the conquest of Mexico. The wealth, luxury, and high civilization 
of this empire were strongly contrasted with the rude manners of the 
barbarous tribes on the north as well as of the indolent natives of the 
coast. Its populous cities were guarded by a well-ordered police ; in 
their markets were found as great a variety of merchandise as in any 
European fair. The capital city was situated in the midst of an immense 
salt lake, and though itself many thousand feet above the sea, was 
surrounded by mountains of far greater altitude. Its temples were re- 
markable for their architectural grandeur, and were adorned with delicate 
and curious carvings in stone and wood. A race of hereditary emperors 
was regarded with almost religious veneration. 

First subduing the warlike republic of Tlascala, and drawing from 



DISCOVERIES AND AD VEN TUBES. 137 

it 6,000 auxiliaries, Cortez advanced to the important town of Cholula. 
Here the officers of Montezuma entertained him with a show of friend- 
ship, while secretly laying plots for his destruction. But Cortez detected 
the treachery and revenged it by a massacre of several thousands of 
citizens. 

18. The feeble Montezuma, unable to resent this violence, received 
the Spaniards with great magnificence in his capital; but his efforts 
at conciliation were unavailing to save either his kingdom or his life. 
He was seized and detained in the Spanish quarters as a hostage, and 
was slain during an attack, by a missile from the hand of one of his own 
subjects. The Spaniards were forced to withdraw for awhile from the 
capital, but returning with fresh reinforcements, they captured the 
new emperor, Guatimozin, and soon became masters of the whole empire. 
The possession of fire-arms and of horses had given the mere handful 
of Spaniards a comparatively easy victory over thousands of brave but 
defenseless natives. Armies of missionary monks »completed the con- 
quest which force had begun. The Mexicans, convinced that the gods 
of their fathers had either deserted them or had themselves been con- 
quered, flocked in such numbers to embrace the new faith, that thousands 
were baptized in a single day. The humane efforts of the missionaries, 
especially of the good Las Casas, preserved the Mexicans in great meas- 
ure from the cruel fate which Spanish conquest had brought upon the 
natives of the islands ; and they ,were rewarded by the ardent attachment 
of that people to the Eoman Church. 

19. A more disgraceful tale of deceit and violence might be told of 
the conquest of Peru, A. D. 1531-1536. The mineral treasures of this 
great empire had been described to Balboa by the natives of the Isthmus ; 
but the magnificence of the court and capital of Atahualpa far surpassed 
all that had been told. After buying his life with a room full of gold, 
the unhappy Inca was nevertheless condemned to be burned at the 
stake ; and the utmost indvilgence which he could obtain by a profession 
of Christianity, was death by a halter before the flames were kindled. 
Quarrels among the Spaniards themselves delayed the establishment of 
their power. Pizarro, the commander, was slain by one of his subordi- 
nates, but the rebel Almagro was in turn put to death, and order was 
restored by a new governor, Vaca de Castro. By a most cruel system 
of oppression, the Peruvians were driven in gangs to the mines, which 
they were compelled to work for the benefit of their conquerors; and 
it is said that four-fifths of the laborers died under these exactions. 

20. In the mean while Magalhaens or Magellan had passed the south- 
ernmost point of the American continent, and in his attempted voyage 
around the world, crossed the Pacific and discovered that important 
group of islands which afterward received the name Philippine, in honor 



138 MODERN HISTORY. 

of Philip II. of Spain. He was killed in those eastern seas, and his 
squadron, completing the circumnavigation of the globe, arrived in Spain 
under another commander. The western coast of North America was 
explored by the Spaniards, Coronado and Cabrillo, A. D. 1540-42. Ferdi- 
nand de Soto undertook to colonize that fertile and attractive region 
which Ponce de Leon had discovered ; but the Florida Indians proved 
themselves, what their descendants have since been found, the most diffi- 
cult to subdue of all the natives of the coast. Failing in this enterprise, 
De Soto pushed on into the interior, and reached the Mississippi River 
not far from the present town of Memphis. Descending that river, 
he entered the Arkansas and explored its basin. He died in the wilder- 
ness, leaving neither settlement nor permanent conquest to preserve 
the memory of his toils. 

21. The discovery of silver in Bolivia and Buenos Ayres quickened 
the Spanish enterprises in South America. The towns of Quito, Guaya- 
quil, Santiago, and Buenos Ayres were all founded within 

A. D. 1535-1540. ^ ' ^ ' . •' 

five years; but two centuries of war in Chili failed to sub- 
due the brave and freedom-loving Araucanians. Several captaincies were 
established in Brazil by the Portuguese ; and in A. D. 1549, these were 
united under a Governor-General whose capital was Bahia. 

22. The French were among the last to compete with other Europeans 
in the search for undiscovered lands ; but the fisheries on the Banks of 
Newfoundland early attracted the bold seamen of Brittany, and there 
is even some evidence of their presence there before the discovery of the 
mainland by Cabot. King Francis I., envying the wealth and dominion 
of his hated rival Charles V. in the New World, and pursuing his 
favorite policy of patronizing Italian genius, gave a commission to Verraz- 
zano, a Florentine navigator, to seek a westward passage to Cathay. 

Though this expected opening was not found, Verrazzano 
explored the Atlantic coast of America from Lat. 34 to 50 , 
and was the first European to visit the harbors of New York and New- 
port. The misfortunes of Francis I. interrupted these enterprises, but 
they were resumed in 1534, when Jacques Cartier, a Breton of St. Malo, 
made a slight examination of Newfoundland and the mouth of the St. 
Lawrence. The next year he returned with greater force, and ascended 
the river beyond the present sites of Quebec and Montreal — even then 
the centers of a large population. Five years later, he made another 
expedition to the New World, as lieutenant of the Sieur de Eoberval, 
who followed with additional forces in 1542. This time' a colony was 
planted in Nova Scotia, but its brief existence affords nothing worthy 
of mention. The fisheries and the trade in furs and marine ivory still 
engaged the enterprise of the French ; but their colonization began 
only at the opening of the seventeenth century, with the daring advent- 



RISE OF EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 139 

ures of Samuel de Champlain and the establishment of the feudal sov- 
ereignty of De Monts. 

iiEC.A.:pia:-u-ij.A.Ti02sr. 

The western continent received one or more European colonies before its discovery by 
Columbus. Exploration of the Atlantic begun by the Catalans, greatly promoted by Prince 
Henry of Portugal. The Portuguese open a sea-route to India, and thus revolutionize Euro- 
pean commerce. Goa the Golden becomes capital of their empire in the east. Columbus, 
believing the sphericity of the earth, crosses the Atlantic under patronage of Isabella of 
Spain ; discovers San Salvador, Hayti, and Cuba. Pope Alexander VI. divides the heathen 
world between Spain and Portugal. Haytians perish by hundreds of thousands under 
ripartimiento system of the Spaniards. Columbus discovers the continent in his third 
voyage, is shipwrecked in his fourth, and dies in poverty. North America discovered and 
explored by Cabot for Henry VII. of England ; Brazil by Cabral for Emmanuel of Portu- 
gal. Cuba colonized by Diego Columbus. Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon — the 
Pacific by Balboa. Mexico conquered by Cortez, Peru by Pizarro. The globe first cir- 
cumnavigated by the fleet of Magellan. Cabrillo and Coronado explore the western, De 
Soto the eastern side of the North American continent. Silver discovered and towns built, 
by the Spaniards in South America. French fishermen on the Banks of Newfoundland. 
Verrazzano visits the harbors of New York and Newport. Colonies attempted by Cartier 
and Roberval. 

Rise of the Eubopean States-System. 

23. From the new continent, the exploration of whose bays and rivers 
was engaging the most active spirits of an adventurous age, we turn to 
resume the thread of European history at the beginning of the modern 
era. The common interests of the' several states had been greatly multi- 
plied by tlie progress of civilization ; certain events were felt to affect all 
nations alike — especially the progress of the Turks and the growth in 
every country of opinions contrary to the doctrines of the established 
Church. The new art of printing increased the interchange of ideas ; and 
the establishment of colonies in Asia and America led to more intimate 
commercial dealings between the parent states. All these causes con- 
spired to develop the European States-system — a confederacy of powers 
independent and widely various in their local constitutions — whose rela- 
tions are determined and maintained not by authority but by diplomacy, 
or by the still incomplete, though constantly maturing, science of inter- 
national law. 

The preservation of the " balance of power," i. e., of the independence 
of all the states, by preventing any from acquiring a preponderance 
which would threaten the general security, became a chief object, and 
demanded from every government a vigilant attention to the affairs of 
other nations. Thence arose many alliances and counter-alliances and 
much diplomatic activity. States of inferior rank, like Savoy, Lorraine, 
and the Swiss Eepublics, were protected by their more powerful neigh- 
bors, as convenient smaller weights in, the balance. 



140 MODERN HISTORY. 

24. Among the great nations of Europe, Spain was clearly predomi- 
nant at the opening of the sixteenth century. Since the conquest of the 
Moors, all the peninsula except Portugal obeyed Ferdinand and Isabella, 
and the important Aragonese dependencies, Sardinia, and the kingdom 
of the Two Sicilies, were soon permanently reiinited to the crown, while 
the extension of Spanish dominion in the New World promised unlimited 
increase of wealth and power. France had equal European advantages, 
though destitute of colonial possessions. Bretagne was recently annexed 
to the crown by marriage, and Burgundy, the last of the great fiefs 
which had threatened the sovereign power, was absorbed into the king- 
dom upon the death of Charles the Bold. England was likewise consoli- 
dated and pacified by the blending of rival claims to the crown in the 
marriage of Henry VII. with Elizabeth of York, and by the extinction 
of some formidable families in the Wars of the Eoses. 

25. The Empire, no longer Eoman except in name, was henceforth 
almost an hereditary appanage of the House of Austria. The theory of 
the universal supremacy of the Caesar had vanished with the discovery 
of a hemisphere unknown to Augustus or his successors. Maximilian 
I. was a great ruler, but it was as Archduke of Austria, Count of the 
Tyrol, Duke of Styria and Carinthia and Regent of the Netherlands, 
rather than as emperor. The multitude of petty German sovereigns had 
collectively far more power than their nominal head. Still the empire 
continued for two centuries to form an essential part of the system of 
European states — "important to all, but dangerous to none." The Otto- 
man power came to the height of its greatness under Solyman II., A. D. 
1520-1566. His fleet nearly controlled the Mediterranean, and his Janiza- 
ries — then the most eflective infantry in the world — were equally for- 
midable on land. 

26. Charles VIII. of France no sooner found himself in possession of 
sovereign power, than he prepared to prosecute the claim to Naples de- 
rived by his father from Charles of Maine. Though full of grand schemes 
of conquest, the young king was diminutive and deformed in person 
and weak in mind. His army, which had cost ruinous sacrifices to equip, 
Avaited for him at the foot of the Alps until he had spent in tournaments 
and festivities the entire sum provided for the war ; and he could only 
proceed by borrowing 50,000 crowns from a Milanese merchant. Hav- 
ing entered Italy he borrowed and pawned the jewels of the Duchess of 
Savoy and the Marchioness of Montferrat, in order to prosecute his enter- 
prise. His chief ally was Ludovico Sforza, uncle of the reigning duke 
of Milan, and one of the most unscrupulous plotters of the age. He had 
invited the French into Italy in the hope of being protected by them in 
the usurpation of the duchy ; and his nephew died about this time under 
strong suspicion of having been poisoned by Ludovico. 



RISE OF EUROPEAN STATES-SYSTEM. 141 

27. The Florentines were ancient allies of the French, but their present 
ruler, Piero de Medici, was bound by a treaty to Alfonso II. of Naples. 
A sedition arose against Piero, who, driven by his fears to an opposite 
extreme of policy, voluntarily offered to put Charles VIII. in possession 
of all the Tuscan fortresses, and to furnish him with a loan of 200,000 
florins. Enraged by this degrading submission, the Florentines expelled 
the Medici from their city, confiscated their goods, and offered a price for 
their heads. The Dominican reformer, Savonarola, who had foretold the 
coming of the French as ministers of divine vengeance'' upon the corrup- 
tions of Italy — especially the notorious wickedness of the Pope and his 
family, the Borgias — now came to the head of affairs. Appearing before 
Charles VIII. at Lucca, he prophesied for him earthly victory and heav- 
enly glory, on condition of his protecting the liberties of Florence. The 
king took up his residence in the Tuscan capital, but upon his proposing 
to tax the city and recall the Medici, the people rose as one man in de- 
fense of their rights, and he was compelled to retire. 

28. Charles entered Eome with an army of 50,000 men and a train of 
artillery. The personal wickedness of Alexander VI. was deepened in the 
view of his contemporaries by his close but unnatural alliance with the 
Turkish sultan, Bajazet. Zizim, a younger brother and hated rival of Ba- 
jazet, had taken refuge with the Knights of St. John at Rhodes. For 
greater security he was sent to. France, A. D. 1483, and remained several 
years in various fortresses belonging to the order ; while Bajazet, well satis- 
fled to have him out of the way, paid a liberal yearly allowance for his 
maintenance. Later, the unfortunate prisoner was committed to the keep- 
ing of the Pope, and Alexander now made use of so valuable a prize in his 
negotiations Avith Bajazet. Charles VIII. was well known to aim at the 
conquest of the Turks and a restoration of the Eastern Empire, the title 
to which he had purchased from Andrew Palaeologus, nephew of the last 
reigning emperor. The Pope now sent word to the sultan that Charles 
was scheming to get possession of Zizim in furtherance of his plans 
against the Ottomans. Bajazet replied by offering 300,000 ducats for the 
murder of his brother, and as Zizim died within a few months, his death 
was commonly imputed to a slow poison administered by order of the 
Pope. 

29. As soon as the French army entered the Neapolitan dominions, the 
people rose against their king, Alfonso II., a harsh and odious tyrant. 
Seized with remorse and terror, the king abdicated in favor of his son ; but 
the virtues of Ferdinand II. were unable to retrieve the desperate fort- 
unes of his family. His infantry threw down their arms at the approach 
■of the French; one of his principal officers betrayed Capua to Charles, 
and the city of Naples rose in revolt. Ferdinand burned or sank most of 
lis fleet, placed his available troops in the fortresses near Naples, and 



142 MODERN HISTORY. 

retired to Sicily with fifteen ships. The king of France entered the capi- 
tal the next day amid the acclamations of the people ; the fortresses soon 
surrendered, and in a few weeks the entire kingdom had fallen into his 
hands almost without a blow. 

30. This undeserved success turned the weak head of Charles. He 
treated the Neapolitans as a conquered people ; and instead of rewarding 
their nobles and generals, whose influence had mainly secui'ed his triumph, 
he confiscated their hereditary lands and ofiices to bestow them upon his 
own idle followers. The first extensive league known to European history 
was now formed against him by the arts of Ludovico Sforza, who had 
gained all he could hope from the presence in Italy of the French, and 
was alarmed by the nearness of the Duke of Orleans, the rightful heir of 
the Visconti. A treaty was signed at Venice in March, 1495, by represent- 
atives of the Pope, the Emperor, King Ferdinand of Spain, the Venetian 
Eepublic, and the Duke of Milan. A Spanish army was soon landed in 
Sicily and a Venetian fleet appeared on the Apulian coast. 

Disappointed of a coronation by the Pope, Charles consoled himself by 
a magnificent entry into Naples, clothed in the robes of an eastern 
emperor, bearing a globe in one hand and a scepter in the other. The 
next week he left his southern capital unprovided with either money in 
its treasury or food or ammunition in its fortresses. As a contrast, how- 
ever, to the poverty in which he had entered Italy, he was followed in 
his northward march by an immense baggage-train loaded 

July, 1495. •' ^^ ^ 

with treasure. At Fornovo in Lombardy he was met by 
the army of the allies, which nearly four times outnumbered his own. 
All might have been lost for the French, but that their rich plunder 
diverted the attention of the enemy, whose disorderly ranks were easily 
put to flight. The king then made a new treaty with Sforza, who 
acknowledged himself the vassal of Charles for Genoa, and promised 
to take no part in any of the movements of the allies against France. 

31. Meanwhile the French dominion in Naples was falling as rapidly 
as it had arisen. The king of Aragon sent an army to the aid of Ferdi- 
nand II., who landed at Eeggio within a week of Charles' departure. 
His forces were defeated at Seminara; but the people of the capital, now 
weary of their new masters, rose in revolt and welcomed their natural 
sovereign with shouts of joy. All the southern coast declared for Ferdi- 
nand. The French king's cousin and viceroy, the Duke of Montpensier, 
made some efibrts to continue the war, but, no aid arriving from France, 
he was forced to conclude a treaty, in which little more was granted to 
the French than permission to depart for home. While awaiting trans- 
ports, a pestilence broke out, which destroyed the viceroy himself and 
great numbers of his men. The Constable d'Aubigny was defeated about 
the same time in Calabria, by Gonsalvo de Cordova, whose career of un- 



EISE OF DIPLOMACY. 143 

Interrupted victories won him the title of the Great Captain. Ferdinand 
II., dying in 1496, was succeeded by his uncle Don Frederic, a prince of 
great talents and popular disposition, who soon destroyed the last traces 
of French domination. 

32. The chief result of the wild expedition of Charles Vlll. was a fatal 
thirst for distant conquests excited in the sovereigns and people who had 
been drawn into his wars; and unhappy Italy, weakened by her own dis- 
sensions, suffered many years from the display of her helplessness and 
wealth. To the refined and enervated Italians, the invasion by the 
French was like a new irruption of northern barbarians ; for the carnage 
wrought by the well-served artillery of Charles, presented a murderous 
contrast to the Italian battles of the day,* in which " the worst that a 
soldier had to fear was the loss of his horse or the expense of his ransom." 
Another and more important effect of Charles' Italian expedition, may be 
traced in larger views of national policy among the governments of 
Europe. 

Several marriages negotiated about this time by the Spanish sover- 
eigns had a controlling influence upon subsequent history. The Prin- 
cess Margaret, daughter of the Emperor Maximilian, and discarded bride 
of Charles VIII., was married to John, Prince of Asturias and eldest 
son of Ferdinand and Isabella ; while her brother J'hilip, heir of the 
Netherlands, became the husband of their second daughter, Joanna. 
Their eldest daughter, Isabella, was espoused to the king of Portugal ; 
and their youngest, Catherine, to the heir of the English crown. The 
early deaths of the Infant of Spain, the queen of Portugal and her only 
son, left the inheritance of the Spanish monarchies to the eldest son of 
Philip and Joanna, who fills a most important place in the history of the 
sixteenth century. 

33. The crimes and vices of the Borgias gave terrible energy to the 
preaching of Savonarola, who loudly summoned the princes of Europe to 
convene a council and depose the Pope. Alexander responded by excom- 
municating the Florentine prophet and all the members of his govern- 
ment. The fanaticism of the Piagnoni, or Weepers, who followed Savona- 
rola, had strengthened two other parties in Florence ; and it was by 
availing himself of their dissensions that the Pope procured the death of 
his bold adversary. Savonarola, with two of his disciples, was burnt in 



* The manufacture of defensive armor during the 14th and 15th centuries, so far excelled 
that of the weapons of destruction, that war became almost as safe as the peaceful con- 
tests of the chess-board. It was chiefly carried on in Italy by mercenary companies of 
adventurers, who were hired out by their captains to any prince or city that offered the 
greatest pay or plunder ; and it was the obvious policy of the leaders to keep their forces 
undiminished, as the material of future bargains. Machiavelli mentions two decisive 
battles, in one of which no man was injured, and in the other, one was killed only by 
the accident of falling from his horse and being smothered in the mud. 



144 MODERN HISTORY. 

the market-place at Florence, May 23, 1498. But the pontiff did not 
thus escape the natural result of his crimes. His eldest son, the Duke of 
Gandia, had already been murdered by Caesar Borgia, his own brother, 
who bore in the Church the high rank of Cardinal of Valencia. For a 
few days even Alexander VI. was struck with remorse. He openly con- 
fessed his sins and promised reformation; but he soon plunged more 
deeply than ever into violent and degrading courses. He not only for- 
gave the murderer, but by releasing him from his vows as a prelate, 
prepared to make him a great secular prince. 

34. Charles VIII. was preparing for a fresh invasion of Italy, when a 
sudden death cut off his designs. He left no son, and the French crown 

passed to the younger branch of the Valois, now repre- 
sented by Louis, Duke of Orleans. The training which 
Louis had experienced in the stern school of adversity proved a benefit 
to his realm. No king since Louis IX. had shown so active a sympathy 
for his poorer subjects; and the fear of the courtiers that he might avenge 
himself for the slights and persecutions which he had suffered during the 
minority of his cousin, were silenced by his noble remark that " it ill 
became a king of France to remember the quarrels of a duke of Orleans." 
If his foreign policy had been equally mild and- moderate, the nation 
might have had still greater reason to rejoice. But the fatal beque^s of 
Joanna of Naples and Valentina of Milan were destined still to be the 
curse of the French people. 

35. With Louis XII. began the ascendency of the Cardinal-statesmen, 
who, with little intermission, governed France 150 years. George d'Am- 
boise. Archbishop of Eouen, had long been a faithful friend, and was now 
the trusted minister of the king, whose designs upon Italy he warmly 
favored, in the hope of succeeding to the papacy at the next election. 
Caesar Borgia, won to French interests by the gift of the duchy of Valen- 
tinois, promised to insure this result by creating as many new cardinals 
as might be needed. He brought also to the king a dispensation from his 
marriage with the daughter of Louis XL, and permission to espouse the 
Duchess Anne, widow of Charles VIIL, thus reannexing Bretagne to the 
French monarchy. 

36. The king's next object was the prosecution of his hereditary claim 
to the duchy of Milan. All things being ready, an army of 23,000 men 
was sent across the Alps under three experienced generals. Venice was 
the ally of Louis. The success of the expedition was as sudden as that ' 
of Charles VIIL against Naples. The Milanese were disaffected with 
their duke, who, fearing violence, departed to the Tyrol to ask aid in 
person of Maximilian. In his absence, the city of Milan set the example 
of declaring for the French, and all Lombardy was annexed, without a 
battle, to the dominions of Louis. The king crossed the Alps to enter his 



St.Gonhi rd Sj>luhe,,l 




J^0ETHER:N^ ITALY 

From 1492 to 1797. 

Copied from. Sprimer's Historical Atlas. 
Scale of Milfis. 



5 10 15 20 25 



Scale 1: 3.700.000 



THE FRENCH IN ITALY. 145 

new capital in triumph, and the Lombards were charmed with fair 
promises of a mild, paternal government. Scarcely, however, had he re- 
turned to France, when the extortions of Trivulzio, his lieutenant, and 
the rudeness of his soldiery, exasperated the people and revived the party 
of the exiled duke. Sforza now approached with an army which he had 
raised in Switzerland, and the French retreated to Mortara. 

In April, 1500, the two armies met near No vara; but the infantry on 
both sides was Swiss — in the one case obtained by treaty with the govern- 
ment, in the other enlisted man by man. The recruits of Sforza had 
received orders from their Diet not to fight their countrymen ; and imme- 
diately after the opening of the battle, they retreated, accordingly, into 
the town. Here they began a secret agreement with the French, promis- 
ing to desert the duke and go home, on condition of a safe-conduct, 
which was readily granted. One private soldier surpassed the perfidy 
of his comrades by betraying Ludovico himself while trying to pass out 
in their ranks, disguised as a monk. He was carried into France and 
spent the remainder of his life in a dungeon. In spite of the perfidious 
crimes which mark him for condemnation, Ludovico Sforza had been in 
many respects a wise and beneficent sovereign. The great Lombard plain 
owes, to this day, much of its productiveness to the canal by which he 
completed its system of irrigation. Leonardo da Vinci, the greatest artist 
of the time, chose Ludovico for his patron and friend, and, as painter, 
sculptor, and poet, contributed much to the splendor of his court. 

37. A counter-revolution now made Louis XII. again master of the 
Milanese, and opened the way for his march upon Naples. The cousin 
and natural ally of King Frederic — Ferdinand of Spain — had secretly 
turned against him, and made a treaty with the king of France, to di- 
vide the Neapolitan dominions between them. Under pretense of a cru- 
sade against the Turks, which was duly proclaimed by Pope Alexander, 
Ferdinand had a fleet and army ready in the ports of Sicily 

before the arrival of the French. Several towns and fort- 
resses which had been committed to him by his cousin as ^ friend and 
ally, were retained for his own possession. When the disgraceful plot 
became known, Frederic abandoned his kingdom rather than subject his 
people to a useless war ; and surrendering himself to Stuart d'Aubigny, 
was conveyed into France. The military fame of Gonsalvo de Cordova is 
covered with disgrace by his obedience to a faithless king. He gained 
possession, by a false oath, of the son of King Frederic and heir to the 
kingdom, who was sent as a prisoner into Spain. Thus ended the 
Neapolitan branch of the House of Aragon, which had reigned sixty-five 
years in the Two Sicilies. 

38. The fraudulent conquerors of Naples naturally quarreled in the di- 
vision of their spoils. The French gradually gained the whole country, 

M. H. 10. 



146 MODERN HISTORY. 

excepting Barletta and a few towns on the south-western coast. A new 
fraud put the Spaniards again in possession. The Archduke Philip, on 
his return from Spain to the Netherlands, was commissioned to make a 
treaty with the king of France at Lyons. It was there agreed that the 
two sovereigns should bestow their newly acquired kingdom upon two 
children, Charles of Austria and Claude of France, who were to be mar- 
ried when they became of age. In the meantime Philip was to be regent 
for his infant son, and to govern at Naples, jointly with a commissioner 
from the king of France. Louis, relying on this treaty, ordered his 
generals in Italy to suspend hostilities ; but Ferdinand, who had resolved 
not to be bound by it, sent secret commands to his Great Captain, who 
by a sudden and rapid movement surprised the French in their inaction. 
The two decisive battles of Seminara and Cerignola secured the king- 
dom to the Spaniards. Most of the towns, including Naples itself, opened 
their gates to Gonsalvo, and within three months the last Frenchman 
had quitted the dominion. 

Ii.ECJ^:PITTJXj.A.TIOI>r. 

Opening of the modern era marked by great increase of diplomatic relations between 
the several states of Europe. Predominance of Spain ; consolidation and increased power 
of England and Prance. The Empire still important in theory though reduced in effect- 
ive force, and possessed almost exclusively by the Austrian princes. Culmination of 
Turkish power under Solyman. Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. of France ; occupa- 
tion of Florence and Rome ; conquest of Naples. League formed against the French ; 
Naples recovered by the House of Aragon. Important alliances of the Spanish royal 
family. Martyrdom of Savonarola ; crimes of the Borgias. Accession of Louis XII. in 
France ; his conquest of the Milanese ; end of the career of Ludovico Sforza. In alliance 
with Ferdinand of Aragon, the French again conquer Naples, but are outwitted by him, 
and finally expelled from the kingdom. 

Progress of European States-System. 

39. The Borgias had availed themselves of the presence of the French 
to conquer, by force or fraud, many small sovereignties in central Italy, 
from which they intended to organize a new and powerful " kingdom of 
Romagna." But Alexander VI. was doomed to perish by his own wicked 
devices. Of the forty-three cardinals whom he appointed, the greater 
number bought their dignity with enormous sums of gold; but after they 
had become enriched by employments in the Church, very many were 
poisoned, that the papal coffers might again be filled by the confiscation 
of their estates and the sale of their high ofl&ces. Such a fate was de- 
signed for the Cardinal of Corneto, who was invited with 
Csesar Borgia to the Belvedere, a favorite retreat of the Pope 
near the Vatican. A servant had been instructed to serve the guest 
with poisoned wine ; by mistake the bottles were interchanged, and Alex- 



PROGRESS OF STATES-SYSTEM. 147 

ander and his son, as well as their unsuspecting victim, partook of the 
fatal drugs. The vigorous constitutions of the younger men conquered 
the violent illness which ensued ; but the Pope, now seventy-two years 
of age, died within a week. 

40. The Cardinal d'Amboise now proved the worthlessness of that 
friendship which is bought with worldly favors. A French army, on its 
march to Naples, halted near Eome to influence the choice of a new pope ; 
but perceiving that the election must nevertheless go against him, Am- 
boise gave the votes of his party to the Cardinal of Siena. He was a 
good old man, but his elevation was owing chiefly to a mortal illness with 
which he was already prostrated, and which ended his life in less than a 
month. He had used the few days allotted to him in planning a general 
council for the purification of the Church. The second election was 
yet more destructive to the hopes of Amboise. Cardinal Julian della 
Eovera, an active and powerful man, received the votes of the conclave, 
and became Pope Julius H. His warlike reign was absorbed by two 
objects: the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and the recovery of the 
alienated estates of the Church. The spiritual dangers which more and 
more threatened the papal supremacy failed to attract his attention. 
Csesar Borgia was soon stripped of all his ill-gotten possessions, and im- 
mured in the same tower in Rome, where he had himself confined innu- 
merable prisoners. Whe'n released, he availed himself of the safe-conduct 
of Gonsalvo de Cordova, and repaired to Naples, only to be betrayed by 
that general into the hands of his perfidious sovereign and consigned for 
three years to a Spanish prison. He escaped, and fell fighting in one of 
the civil wars of Navarre.* 

41. Filled with resentment by the ill-faith of Ferdinand of Aragon 
and his Great Captain, Louis XII. had lost no time in fitting out three 
expeditions — one against Naples and two against Spain. The first was 
delayed, as we have seen, by the selfish schemes of Cardinal d'Amboise, 
until the lateness of the season rendered all its efforts futile. Heavy rains 
had converted the valley of the Garigliano into a noisome swamp ; hundreds 
of the French died of malaria, while the army of Gonsalvo, better posted 
and more thoroughly fed and equipped, was able to take advantage of 
their misfortunes. The battle, or rather the rout, of the Garigliano, 



* Maeaulay has given in a few vigorous phrases the most favorable view of the charac- 
ter and career of Ctesar Borgia — " who emerged from the sloth and luxury of the Roman 
purple, the first prince and general of the age ; who, trained in an unwarlike profession, 
formed a gallant army out of the dregs of an unwarlike people ; who, after acquiring sov- 
ereignty by destroying his enemies, acquired popularity by destroying his tools ; who had 
begun to employ for the most salutary ends the power which he had attained by the most 
atrocious means ; who tolerated within the sphere of his iron despotism no plunderer or 
oppressor but himself; and who fell at last amid the mingled curses and regrets of a 
people, of whom his genius had been the wonder, and might have been the salvation." 



148 MODERN HISTORY. 

Dec. 29, 1503, completed the conquest of Naples by the Spaniards. The 
two French expeditions against Spain were no more eflPective ; and a peace 
between the two nations iwas negotiated by Frederic, the deposed and 
captive king of the Two Sicilies. 

42. In A. D. 1504, died the good Queen Isabella, oveswhelmed with 
grief for the loss of her family, and especially for the insanity of her 
daughter Joanna, the wife of Philip of Austria. King Ferdinand, in the 
absence of his daughter, became Regent of Castile, though he caused 
Philip and Joanna to be proclaimed as sovereigns. Encouraged by a 
party among the nobles opposed to Ferdinand, Philip wrote a discourte- 
ous letter requiring his father-in-law to withdraw into his own kingdom 
of Aragon. Ferdinand replied by inviting Philip to Spain; but he 
sought revenge by making a close alliance with Louis XII. of France, 
and marrying Germaine de Foix, a niece of that monarch. The French 
claims upon the kingdom of Naples were her dowry. 

43. Early in A. D. 1506, Philip and Joanna set sail for Spain; but 
their Dutch and Flemish fleet was dispersed by a storm, and they them- 
selves driven to take refuge in an English port. Henry VII. availed him- 
self of their misfortune to extort from Philip a commercial treaty, which 
favored England at the expense of the Netherlands, and a promise of 
the close alliance of their families by two marriages, which, however, 
never took place. After several months' delay, the sovereigns were per- 
mitted to depart for Spain, where they received the allegiance of the 
Castilian cortes. Ferdinand resigned all authority in Castile, retaining 
only the West Indian revenues and the grand-masterships of the three 
military orders, which were secured to him by the will of Isabella, and 
set sail for Italy with his new queen. Before his arrival at Naples, he 
received tidings of the sudden death of Philip. Ferdinand was willing, 
however, to have his absence regretted by the ungrateful Spaniards, who, 
in fact, were thrown into great confusion and alarm by the unexpected 
event. He proceeded, therefore, to regulate at his leisure the aifairs of his 
Neapolitan kingdom, and only returned to Spain in the summer of 1507. 

44. The unfortunate Joanna, whose mental malady was aggravated by 
excessive grief, submitted herself wholly to her father's control, and 
during the remaining forty-seven years of her life, never consented to 
take any active part in public affairs. Her son, Charles, remained in the 
Netherlands, under the guardianship of his grandfather, the emperor. 
Margaret, daughter of Maximilian, now the second time a widow, was 
appointed regent of those countries. To her skill in diplomacy was due 
the treaty of Cambray, which united the Emperor, the Pope, the king of 
Spain, and the king of France against the Venetian Republic. It was 
negotiated by Margaret with the Cardinal d'Amboise, and was signed in 
the cathedral of Cambray, Dec. 10, 1508. 



THE LEAGUE OF CAMERA Y. 149 

45. The wealth and power of Venice — lately confirmed by the capture 
of several Greek islands from the Turks — excited the fear and jealousy 
of her neighbors. Louis XII., as duke of Milan, wished to reclaim sev- 
eral Lombard towns which had been secured by treaty to the Venetians 
during his wars with Sforza. The Pope insisted upon the grants of Pepin 
and Charlemagne, securing Eimini, Faenza, and some other towns to the 
dominion of St. Peter. Ferdinand coveted Brindisi and other maritime 
cities which had been pledged to the Venetians by his cousin and prede- 
cessor. King Frederic, as security for their expenses in his cause. 
Padua, Vicenza, and Verona were claimed as belonging to the empire by 
ancient right; Roveredo, Treviso, and Friuli, to the House of Austria. 
The Duke of Savoy, as lineal descendant of Guy of Lusignan, claimed 
the Isle of Cyprus, which had been bequeathed to the Venetians by 
Catherine Cornaro, widow of its last reigning sovereign, and the king of 
Hungary desired to reannex the lands conquered by the Eepublic in 
Dalmatia and Slavonia. 

46. Florence was drawn into the league by an act of the basest perfidy 
on the part of Ferdinand of Spain and Louis of France. Ever since the 
Italian expedition of Charles VIII., Pisa, previously the unwilling sub- 
ject of Florence, had been bravely struggling for independence. Maxi- 
milian, as emperor, and therefore nominal sovereign of Italy, had been 
implored to undertake her cause, but his movements were so long delayed 
that "succor for Pisa" had become a proverb and by-word in Germany. 
The French and Spanish monarchs now agreed to place a garrison in 
Pisa, which would readily be received as friendly, but which should be 
instructed to open the gates at an appointed time to the Florentines. 
For this act of royal treachery, the king of France was to receive 100,000 
ducats, and the king of Spain 50,000. The half-starved city was entered, 
June 8, 1509, by the soldiers of Florence, who, by a liberal distribution 
of food, showed greater generosity than their allies. 

47. The League of Cambray is important as having been the first great 
coalition of leading European powers since the Crusades. It is said to 
have laid the foundation of public law, by raising the question whether 
ancient and hereditary right, the faith of treaties, or general considera- 
tions of the common good shall have precedence in controlling national 
affairs. The text of the treaty is deeply tinged with the hypocrisy of the 
time, for it declares the main object of the alliance to be a war against 
the Turks — as preliminary to which, it was necessary to put an end to 
the rapine, losses, and injuries caused by the insatiable cupidity and thirst 
for domination which characterized the Venetian Republic. Venice was, 
in fact, the strongest barrier of Europe against the Turks, and best able 
by her maritime power to oppose them in the seat of their dominion. 

48. Pope Julius II. opened hostilities by a decree of excommunication 



150 MODERN HISTORY. 

against the Venetians, expressed in the bitterest terms of reproach. 
Louis XII. was the first in the field, and by a victory at Agnadello, gained 
all, and more than all that had been assigned to him in the treaty of 
Cambray ; for he was able to send to Maximilian the keys of Verona, 
Vicenza, and Padua. The Venetians, reduced to desperation by the 
number and strength of their enemies, adopted the masterly plan of 
setting free all their Italian dependencies, throwing thus upon the subject 
cities the burden of their own defense, and narrowing the frontiers of the 
Republic to the islands at the head of the Adriatic which had been its 
earliest territories. They also surrendered to Ferdinand the Apulian 
towns which he demanded, and made dutiful professions of obedience to 
the emperor and the Pope. The barbarities committed by both French 
and Germans had, however, the eflfect of arousing the peasantry of all 
north-eastern Italy to take part with Venice. Padua was retaken and 
garrisoned by a Venetian force. It was presently besieged by Maximilian 
with an army of 40,000 men, but the defense was obstinate and at length 
successful ; the emperor withdrew and disbanded his forces, and the 
Venetians again became masters of many cities. 

49. The Pope had now gained all that he desired for the territories 

of the Church, and his mind reverted to the other great object of his 

ambition, the expulsion of the French from Italy. He re- 
A. D. 1510. . . . 

lieved Venice from the interdict, and he made an alliance 

with the Swiss, who having quarreled with the king of France, agreed 

to furnish 6,000 or more of their best halberdiers to the service of the 

Church. The king of Aragon was propitiated by the feudal investiture 

of the kingdom of Naples, and the tribute formerly demanded from that 

realm was commuted into a yearly offering of a white horse, and an aid 

of three hundred lances in case of actual invasion of the States of the 

Church. The Duke of Ferrara had incurred the wrath of the Pope by 

yielding in every thing to the counsels of the king of France. The first 

signal of the change in the papal policy was the sudden dismissal from 

the Roman court of the embassadors of the king and the duke. 

50. The allied French and German armies were still carrying on war 
in northern Italy with more brutality than success. Vicenza, which, 
after the imperial failure at Padua, had speedily returned into alliance 
with Venice, was now exposed to the vengeance of the Germans. All 
its people who could, removed their families and property to Padua ; but 
the remainder, with the neighboring peasantry, took refuge in a vast 
cavern in the mountains not far from the city. The French soldiery 
filled the entrance of the cave with light wood, which they kindled into 
a flame, and thus smothered all who were within, to the number of six 
thousand. Porto Legnano and Monselice, two fortified places of immense 
strength, had just yielded to the allied armies, when the Pope's declara- 



THE HOL Y LEAQ UE. 15 1 

tion of war against tlie Duke of Ferrara, and a simultaneous attack of 
his Eoman and Swiss forces upon Genoa and Milan, turned the scale 
against the imperialists. The Venetians, promptly availing themselves 
of the change, recovered Vicenza and many other places. The papal 
officers failed, however, to excite in Genoa a revolt against the French ; 
and the Swiss who had descended upon the Lombard plain, finding them- 
selves entrapped among the numerous rivers and harassed by the move- 
ments of their enemy, hastily retreated into their own country without 
approaching Milan. 

51. Louis XII. was now deprived by death of the invaluable services 
of Amboise ; but the French clergy, assembled at Lyons, peremptorily 
called upon the Pope to lay down weapons so unsuited to his spiritual 
dignity, and submit his complaints to a general council. A new treaty 
was signed at Blois between the emperor and the French king, which 
provided for the sending of French forces into the field. Only enraged 
by these movements, Julius 11. pushed his warlike preparations with 
increased vigor. He was nearly taken captive by the French at Bologna, 
while confined to his bed by dangerous illness ; but he managed to amuse 
their general by negotiations until a Venetian army, including a body of 
Turkish horsemen, came up. Untamed by his infirmities, the fiery old 
pontiflf proceeded to besiege in person the fortresses of Concordia and 
Mirandola amid the snows of a most severe winter. Encased in armor, 
his white hairs covered by a helmet of steel, he appeared on horseback 
among his men, sharing all their hardships and perils, and encouraging 
them with the promise of rich plunder. When at length the place sur- 
rendered, he entered by a ladder at a breach effected by his guns, being 
too impatient to await the opening of the gates. 

52. In a congress convened by Maximilian at Bologna, the Pope vainly 
tried to detach the emperor from the alliance of France ; and peace was 
rendered impossible by the haughty bearing of the imperial secretary. 
The Pope, seized with panic, quitted Bologna, and his army, pursued by 
the French, lost its great standard, twenty-six cannon, and an immense 
quantity of baggage. The Bolognese received back the Bentivoglios, their 
former masters, and destroyed the bronze statue of Julius II., which was 
considered one of the greatest works of Michael Angelo. 

53. A new alliance, called the Holy League, was formed against the 
French by the Pope, the king of Spain, and the Venetians. ^^^ ^^^^ 
Henry VIII. of England and the Emperor were secret 

parties to the transaction ; but they delayed the open avowal of their 
designs until the interests of each could be best secured. Henry was 
promised a reconquest of Guienne, and the title " Most Christian King," 
of which Louis XII. was to be deprived. The romantic mind of 
Maximilian was filled just now with an uncommonly visionary scheme. 



152 MODERN HISTORY. 

The illness of the Pope had inspired the Emperor with the idea of taking 
holy orders and becoming himself a successor of St. Peter. While waiting 
thus to unite the two supreme dignities of the West, he assumed in 
advance the title of Pontifex Maximus, which the popes had inherited 
from the Csesars. 

54. By a singular contrast of characters and conduct, the spiritual head 
of Christendom combined the genius of a general with the ambition of a 
temporal sovereign ; the king of France was holding ecclesiastical coun- 
cils, and the Emperor began to sigh in his old age for the dignity 
of a pope and the life of a saint. Louis XII., the object of Julius' bit- 
terest enmity, was the only prince who scrupled to fight against him, and 
voluntarily resigned advantages he had gained, rather than do injury to 
the reputed vicar of Christ ; while Henry VIII., the future destroyer of 
papal supremacy in his own realm, was at present willingly bought with 
a few skillful flatteries by the head of the Church. 

55. The French armies in Italy were commanded by Gaston de Foix, 
nephew of Louis XII. and brother-in-law of the king of Spain — a young 
nobleman of extraordinary genius, whose brief and brilliant career filled 
Europe with amazement, and gained for him the name of the "Thunder- 
bolt of Italy." By a swift and resolute movement he threw his army 
into Bologna, then besieged by the allies. The forces of the League 
immediately decamped ; and Gaston, leaving Bologna strongly guarded, 
marched with still greater rapidity into Lombardy, where he learned that 
two cities had expelled or imprisoned their French garrisons. He de- 
feated the Venetians near Isola della Scala in a battle before day-break, 
with no light but that of the stars reflected from the snow. Brescia was 
taken by storm and given up to plunder and massacre. Bergamo escaped 
this terrible fate only by timely submission and the payment of a ransom. 

56. Perceiving the strength of the combination against him, the king 
of France now ordered his kinsman to fight one decisive battle, which 
being gained, he was to march upon Eome, depose the Pope and dictate 
the terms of a peace. In pursuance of this plan, the viceroy moved toward 
April 11 1512 Ravenna, the allied army retiring before him. The engage- 
ment which followed has been described as " one of those 

tremendous days into which human folly and wickedness compress the 
whole devastation of a famine or a plague." The French commander, 
who claimed the kingdom of Navarre, and regarded the king of Spain as 
his personal foe and rival, left his right arm bare, that he might bathe 
it in Spanish blood. The artillery of the Duke of Ferrara, from one end 
of the crescent-shaped line of the French, kept up a destructive cross-fire, 
which mowed down whole ranks of the Spanish and papal troops. In 
the cavalry-charge which followed, the French were victorious; but the 
serried ranks of the Swiss, bristling with the points of their long lances. 



DISSOL UTION OF HOL Y LEA G UE. 153 

like a Macedonian phalanx, had a more difficult conflict to sustain with 
the short swords and Roman drill of the Spanish infantry. They were 
only rescued from destruction by the French horsemen, led by the gallant 
young viceroy himself, who dearly purchased a victory by the sacrifice 
of his life. On hearing the fatal news, Louis XII. exclaimed, " Would 
to God that I had lost all Italy, and that Gaston were safe !" 

57. In the first panic of the allies, all Romagna surrendered to the 
French. Rome trembled, and even the iron-hearted Pope was ready to 
accept Louis' terms of peace. A few weeks changed the aspect of affairs. 
-The French soldiery were dispirited by the loss of their general ; the 
German lancers were withdrawn, and the Duke of Ferrara negotiated 
a separate peace with the Pope. The Council which met at Rome three 
weeks after the battle of Ravenna opposed the terms offered by France. 
The Pope, the Emperor, and the Swiss combined to place Maximilian 
Sforza, son of Ludovico, upon the ducal throne of Milan. The French 
general, La Palisse, retired before them, first to Pavia, and thence, after 
a bloody battle, into his own country. Scarcely more than three towns 
and three fortresses in Italy remained to Louis XII. at the end of 
June, 1512. 

58. The Holy League, however, when relieved from external pressure, 
soon fell apart by its own dissensions. The Pope, bent upon enlarging 
the States of the Church to their greatest former limits, seized the cities 
of Parma and Piacenza from the new duke of Milan, and sent his nephew 
to occupy the duchy of Ferrara, while he detained the now pardoned and 
reconciled Alfonso as a prisoner at Rome. Maximilian sent his army to 
prey upon the territories of his new allies, the Venetians; while the Swiss 
reserved for themselves the three districts of the Valtelline, Locarno, and 
Chiavenna, and levied forced contributions upon the subjects of Maximil- 
ian Sforza, whom they had deposed. The late allies agreed only upon 
one point — the necessity of punishing Florence for her neutrality during 
their wars ; and this was done by conferring power in the Republic upon 
that party which could pay the highest price. 

The Cardinal John de Medici had been a prisoner at the battle of Ra- 
venna; but he escaped in the confusion attending the retreat of the 
French from Milan. He was now sent with a Spanish army to revolution- 
ize Florence, and restore the dominion of his family. The suburban 
village of Prato was taken and subjected to a brutal massacre and pillage. 
The Florentine government, in consternation, deposed its chief magistrate, 
and accepted all the terms of the allies, including a large payment in 
money to the emperor and the Spaniards, and the restoration of the 
Medici, though not as princes, but as citizens. Julian de Medici, youngest 
son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, entered the city, followed shortly by 
his brother, the Cardinal, who, in a packed assembly of the citizens, 



154 MODERN HISTORY. 

obtained a complete reversal of the Republic and the establishment of 
a narrow oligarchy with Julian at its head. 

59. The next year, upon the death of Pope Julius II., John de' Medici 

received the papal crown with the name of Leo X. 

A. D. 1513. 

Though he had been raised at the age of thirteen to the 
highest dignity but one which the Church could bestow, Leo had derived 
from his father and the brilliant freethinkers of the New Academy 
(see Book II., § 150) fully as much respect for pagan mythology as for the 
Christian faith. Though his spiritual qualifications for the pastorate of 
western Christendom were thus singularly deficient, his mind had been 
improved by travel and the conversation of the greatest and wisest men 
of his day; his taste in art was perfect; his court was distinguished at 
once by the highest elegance and the most profuse magnificence ; and to 
all his accomplishments he added wonderfully winning and amiable man- 
ners. He differed from his stern and warlike predecessor no less in 
character than in principles of government. He dissolved the Holy 
League and made peace with France ; and if he pursued Julius' favorite 
policy of expelling foreigners from Italy, it was only that he might unite 
the peninsula under the sway of his own house. Julian de' Medici, whose 
weak and pliant character ill fitted him for the control of a freedom- 
loving people, abdicated his government in favor of his nephew, Lorenzo 
II., and accepted from his brother the post of Captain-General of the 
Church. Unhappy Florence became the slave of a despotic master. 

Poisoning of Alexander VI.; successive elections of Pius III. and Julius II. Fall of 
Caesar Borgia. Defeat of the French in southern Italy. Death of Isabella of Spain and the 
Archduke Philip ; regency of Ferdinand in Castile. League of Cambray against Venice an 
important landmark in European diplomacy. Success of the allies and humiliation of 
Venice. The Pope changes sides and forms a new league against the French. Gaston de 
Foix gains the battle of Ravenna; but the loss of his life ruins French interests in Italy. 
Restoration of the Medici in Florence ; Cardinal de'Mediei becomes Pope Leo X. 

Henky VIII. — Francis I. — Charles V. 

60. Meanwhile the English army which was to have been conveyed in 
Spanish vessels to the coast of Guienne had been landed by order of 
Ferdinand in his own dominions, where he strove to enlist the Marquis 
of Dorset, its commander, in his own schemes against Navarre. Though 
the English refused actual hostilities, their presence as allies of Spain so 
overawed the Navarrese, that the Duke of Alva was able to conquer the 
entire country. Navarre became part of the kingdom of Castile, while 
its native sovereigns, though still retaining their royal titles, were reduced 
to their little principality p-f Beam, north of the Pyrenees. 

61. In April, 1513, Margaret, regent of the Netherlands, concluded a 
new treaty at Mechlin, between the Emperor her father, Ferdinand of 



ACCESSION OF FRANCIS I. 155 

Spain, Henry VIII. of England, and the Pope, by which the contracting 
parties bound themselves to invade France from four separate quarters, 
while still pursuing their combined hostilities in Italy against Louis. The 
French king hastened his preparations, and in the month of May, his 
generals, by a series of brilliant and fortunate actions, subdued all Lom- 
bardy except two towns. The Italians, now equally disgusted with the 
inefficiency of Sforza and the brutality of the Swiss, welcomed the French 
on every side. But the reaction was as sudden and rapid as the advance. 
Fresh arrival* of Swiss compelled the French to raise the siege of Novara, 
and within a few days they were defeated and driven beyond the Alps. 

62. Henry VIII. arrived with his army at Calais, and was joined by the 
Emperor in the siege of Terouenne. The " Battle of the Spurs," in which 
the French cavalry were not so much defeated as put to flight, decided 
the fate of the city. It surrendered and was destroyed, * n i o 
to the great consternation of the Parisians. Not far from 

the same time, James IV. of Scotland, the generous ally of Louis XII., 
who had vainly tried by an invasion of England to prevent the move- 
ments of Henry VIII. against France, perished in the disastrous battle 
of Flodden Field. The invasion of Burgundy by Swiss and German 
troops in the pay of the Emperor, was defeated by bribery. It was the 
most disgraceful period in the history of the Swiss republics, when their 
brave mountaineers, not content with once exchanging their blood for 
gold, sold themselves successively to the highest bidders. 

63. The eventful year 1513 was destined to see still greater changes. 
Before its close, Louis was reconciled with the Pope and sought the 
friendship of the Emperor and the king of Spain, with a view to fur- 
thering his designs upon Milan. His consort, Anne of Brittany, dying 
in January, 1514, he allied himself with Maximilian by engaging to 
marry the Emperor's granddaughter, Eleanora of Austria, while his own 
daughter, Eenee, was affianced to the Archduke Charles, heir of Spain 
and the Netherlands. But this projected union of families alarmed the 
Pope, by its threatened consolidation of Austria, France, Spain, and the 
Low Countries into one enormous state, which would inevitably have 
destroyed the newly cherished balance of power in Europe. With the 
aid of two English prelates, he substituted for it another marriage-treaty, 
by which Louis espoused Mary, sister of Henry VIII. This wedding took 
place at Abbeville, in October, 1514 ; but the consequent festivities were 
fatal to the already failing health of the king of France. He died on 
the first day of 1515. His eldest daughter, the Princess Claude, was 
already married to Francis, Duke of Angouleme, and representative of 
the younger branch of the House of Orleans — who, as Louis left no son, 
became at once the sovereign of the realm. The duchy of Bretagne re- 
mained henceforth a part of France. 



156 MODERN HISTORY. 

64. The new king was twenty-one years ot age, gay, brilliant, and 
equally fond of pleasure and of military glory. The cares of government 
fell into the hands of his mother, Louisa of Savoy, whom he made Duch- 
ess of Angouleme and Anjou. The queen-mother surrounded herself with 
ladies of the noblest families, and it was under her auspices that the 
French court first became noted for elegance and extravagant gaj^-ety. 
The penetrating wit of French women, vailing profound art with consum- 
mate grace, has ever since made its influence felt, for good or ill, in the 
aifairs of France. The Chancellor Duprat and the Constable de Bourbon — 
elevated to their respective dignities by the favor of the queen-mother — 
played important parts in the history of the reign. Pedro Navarro, a 
noted military engineer, long in the service of Ferdinand of Spaih, 
having been wronged by that sovereign, entered the armies of France; 
and from the recruits which he raised among the mountaineers of the 
Cevennes and Pyrenees, presented Francis with the invaluable aid of regi- 
ments formed upon the model of the Spanish infantry. The French king 
lost no time in assuming the title of Duke of Milan, and preparing to 
prosecute the claims of his house in northern Italy. 

65. The history of the first half of the sixteenth century is largely 
occupied by three sovereigns, then all recently entered on the stage of 
active life. 'Henry VIII., the second of the Tudor kings of England, was 
the first who, in more than a hundred years, had ascended the throne 
of that country with an undisputed title. The three Lancastrian kings, 
Henry IV., V., and VI. (A. D. 1399-1461) had owed their crowns, first 
to a successful usurpation, then to the support of the Church and the 
popularity of the wars with France. The House of York (A. D. 1,461- 
1485) had nearly been ruined by the reckless caprices of Edward IV. and 
the haughty assumptions of his brother, Richard III. Henry VII. (A. D. 
1485-1509), who represented the Lancastrian line, had to resist two for- 
midable rebellions, led by pretenders to the dignities and claims of the 
House of York ; while his unbounded avarice exhausted at once the 
purses and the patience of his people. The ample treasures which he 
left, contributed largely, however, to the popularity -of his son, who, 
while punishing the agents of his father's exactions, made no scruple of 
using the funds in furtherance of his own schemes. Inheriting from his 
mother the claims of the House of York, Henry began his reign with 
proofs of justice, intelligence, and liberality, which secured to him the 
unlimited affection of his people. His later history is clouded, as we 
shall see, with caprice, and stained with odious tyranny. 

66. Charles, son of Philip of Austria and Joanna of Spain, replaced 
his aunt, Margaret, in the government of the Netherlands, during the 
same year that Francis I. received the crown of France. The next year 
the death of his grandfather, Ferdinand of Spain, gave him the govern- 



ACCESSION OF CHARLES V. 157 

ment of that country ; for his mother continued to her death in a state 
of mental incapacity, thougli her name, as rightful queen, was always 
associated with that of Charles. Three years later, upon the death of 
his paternal grandfather, Maximilian, Charles received the votes of the 
German electors, and added to all his other dignities the imperial crown. 
Nearly at the same time the victories of Cortez added the empire of the 
Montezumas to his dominions, and — what was of greater consequence to 
his European schemes — shij)s laden with Mexican gold and silver began 
to arrive in his ports. See pp. 136, 187. 

67. Francis I., the third in this trio of youthful monarchs, was in 
many things the bitter rival of Charles, but especially in his aspirations 
to the imperial dignity. Beside this, Charles demanded the restitution 
of Burgundy, which had been confiscated from his grandmother, the 
Duchess Mary, by Louis XI.; he inherited the Suabian and Aragonese right 
to Naples, while Francis represented the House of Anjou; as emperor 
he became sovereign of the imperial fiefs in Italy, including the duchy 
of Milan, which Francis claimed as head of the House of Orleans. All 
these rival claims afforded so many pretexts for indulging the ambition 
and jealousy of the two princes. 

68. They commenced their reigns, however, in close alliance, for Charles 
was at this moment on unfriendly terms with his two grandfathers, who 
were actively opposing Francis' operations in Italy. A Swiss army guarded 
the only western Alpine passes then deemed practicable — those of Mont 
Cenis and Mont Genevre — or was stationed in the Italian plain to close 
the exits from the valleys. In this difficulty the French forces, consist- 
ing of 64,000 men, with 72 great and 300 smaller cannon, performed one 
of the most extraordinary transits recorded in history. Guided by 
chamois-hunters or Alpine shepherds, the two generals, Trivulzio and 
Lautrec, with the engineer, Navarro, pioneered a more southerly route 
over the Col d'ArgentiSre. This path, scarcely passable by the sure foot 
and practiced eye of the mountaineer, was prepared by the skill and 
genius of Navarro for the transportation of heavy artillery. Bridges were 
thrown from one dizzy height to another ; masses of rock were removed 
by charges of gunpowder ; cannon were swung from peak to peak by 
means of ropes. Before the enemy were aware that the ascent had begun, 
the French army stood triumphant on the Lombard plain. 

69. A small division of cavalry, crossing by another route never before 
trodden by horses, had meanwhile surprised Prosper Colonna, the Pope's 
general, at Villafranca, with 700 of his men. The main army proceeded 
by way of Turin, the Swiss retiring before them to Milan and Novara, 
while a detachment, turning southward, recovered Genoa and the whole 
region south of the Po by a bloodless victory. At Marignano, about ten 
miles from Milan, was fought a decisive battle, which transferred the 



158 MODERN HISTORY. 

duchy from Sforza to Francis I. The Swiss, newly reinforced by 20,000 of 
their countrymen, burst unexpectedly upon the French quarters, late in 
the afternoon of September 14. The furious onset and no less fierce resist- 
ance rendered the issue doubtful ; and only midnight and the going down 
of the moon interrupted the combat for that night. The exhausted com- 
batants threw themselves on the ground in a mingled throng of friends 
and foes. The French king slept on a gun-carriage, and at day-break ral- 
lied his men with sound of trumpet. The victory was again doubtful, 
until a small body of Venetians appearing upon the scene, the Swiss 
drew off in perfect order. Francis received the order of knighthood on 
the battle-field, from the hand of Chevalier Bayard — "the good knight 
without fear and wthout reproach." 

70. Sforza retired into France on a pension. With the aid of his 
natural allies, the Florentines and Venetians, Francis might easily have 
conquered the kingdom of Naples. But his false and shallow notions of 
honor led him to consider manufacturers and merchants as unfit confed- 
erates for a great prince. He therefore made a close alliance with the 
Medici, the oppressors of Florence ; sacrificing most of the advantages of 
his victory, and consenting, at the Pope's persuasion, to defer his attack 
on Naples until the death of Ferdinand. At Geneva he made a treaty 
of peace and alliance with the Swiss, by which he gained the important 
right to levy troops in their country. Then disbanding most of his army, 
and appointing the Constable de Bourbon his lieutenant in the Milanese, 
he retired into France. 

71. Before his departure, Leo X. was already conspiring with the 
emperor and the kings of Spain and England, to invest Francisco 
Sforza with the duchy of Milan ; though his recognition of Francis in 
that dignity had been almost the only article in the treaty of Bologna 
which favored the French king. The league which had been promoted 
by Ferdinand of Spain was, however, disconcerted by his sudden death in 
January, 1516. The different estimates of this sovereign by his friends 
and enemies are well expressed in his titles. " Spain called him the 
Wise ; Italy, the Pious ; France and England, the Perfidious." When we 
remember his ingratitude toward Columbus and Gonsalvo de Cordova, or 
the base deception by which he deprived his cousin Frederic of the crown 
of Naples, we can not but think the latter epithet the best-deserved. He 
was, however, the most successful prince of his age, and even his avarice 
and cunning laid the foundation for the brief ascendency of Spain, while 
his narrow, persecuting policy introduced the elements of its sudden and 
fatal decline. 

72. In March, 1516, the emperor fulfilled his part in the treaty by 
invading Lombardy with a large body of Swiss, German, and Spanish 
troops. The French general, Lautrec, was forced to retire into Milan, 



END OF LEAGUE OF CAMBRAY. 159 

while the Constable de Bourbon burned the surrounding villages, to pre- 
vent their affording shelter to the enemy. Thirteen thousand Swiss in 
the army of the French refused to fight their countrymen, now approach- 
ing under the banners of Maximilian, and Bourbon was reluctantly com- 
pelled to dismiss them. But the emperor's good fortune deserted him 
when apparently within his grasp. As usual his coffers were empty and 
his soldiers unpaid : the Swiss colonel entering his bed-chamber one morn- 
ing bluntly declared that he would lead his men over to the service of 
the French unless their pay was forthcoming. The emperor left his army 
and made a hasty journey to Trent under pretense of collecting money ; 
but as he failed to return, his army fell to pieces, and its scattered com- 
panies consoled themselves for their arrears of pay by pillaging several 
unoffending towns. The threatening war-cloud dissolved itself in vapor, 
and Maximilian, conscious of the ridicule he had incurred, never again 
led an army to the field. 

73. Upon the death of King Ferdinand, the Spanish prime-minister, 
Cardinal Ximenes, proclaimed the Archduke Charles at Madrid, then 
recently become the seat of government for the united kingdoms. The 
Navarrese made a fruitless attempt to restore the house of Albret ; the 
Cardinal wreaked a terrible vengeance upon the country, destroying its 
towns, villages, and castles to the number of 2,000, reserving only 
Pampeluna and a few places on the upper Ebro, as military posts from 
which to hold the nation in awe. The exposed positions of Navarre and 
the Netherlands led Charles still to cultivate the friendship of the king 
of France. By the treaty of Noyon, he engaged to marry the infant 
daughter of Francis, who was to bring as her dowry all the French claims 
to the kingdom of Naples; and already by anticipation addressed that 
sovereign, who was scarcely older than himself, as " my good Father." 

74. The Peace of Brussels between the emperor, the French king, and 
the Venetians (Dec, 1516) closed the wars which had sprung from the 
League of Cambray. The next autumn Charles visited his Spanish 
dominions for the first time since his accession, and the joy of the unex- 
pected meeting dispelled for a moment the cloud which rested upon the 
mind of Queen Joanna. The Spaniards, however, were disgusted with 
the insolent rapacity of the Flemish courtiers who accompanied their 
king and absorbed his confidence. A continual stream of gold, drawn 
from their offices and pensions, flowed from Spain to the Netherlands. 
The aged minister, Ximenes, addressed from his sick-bed a letter to the 
king, begging a personal interview. The Flemings feared the ascendency 
of the great minister ; by their persuasions Charles replied in terms which 
vailed under forms of courtesy the coolest and basest ingratitude ; for they 
involved a dismissal from all his offices except that of bishop. This blow, 
from a prince whom he had served so faithfully and wf JI- brought on a 



160 MODERN HISTORY. 

relapse of the fever, which had already subdued the iron frame of the 
Cardinal, and he died in his 81st year, only commending his university'-' 
at Alcala, with his last breath, to the favor of Charles. 

75. To his zeal for learning and his great ability as a statesman, 
Ximenes added warlike talents, in which he was scarcely surpassed by 
Pope Julius II. In 1609 he undertook to chastise the Moors in Africa 
for their depredations on the Spanish coast. He personally took Oran by 
assault, and it was in pursuance of his plans that several important fort- 
resses became permanent possessions of Spain. The darkest shade upon 
his character belongs more properly to the age in which he lived. During 
his eleven years' presidency of the Inquisition, he "permitted," says 
Llorente, 2,536 persons to be burned at the stake, while 51,167 suflFered 
less aggravated punishments. The chancellorship vacated by his death 
was bestowed upon one Fleming, and his primacy upon another. The 
Castilian cities, early accustomed to a voice in national affairs, now joined 
to defend their rights, and addressed a petition to the king, in which they 
complained of the unlawful bestowal of high offices on foreigners, the 
increase of taxes, and the exportation of coin. Charles disregarded their 
complaints, but the " Junta " threatened at a later period to overthrow 
the monarchy. 

76. The rapid progress of the Ottomans about this time demanded the 
attention of Europe. Selim, son of Bajazet II., by a successful revolt 
dethroned his father, whom he put to death, as well as two brothers and 
five nephews ; and then subdued a great part of Persia and Mesopotamia, 
and the whole of Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. The death of King Ladislaus 
of Hungary and the long minority of his son, Louis II., left that 
country — already exhausted by a ruinous war of the peasantry — an easy 
prey to the victorious Turks. It was reprieved a few years by a revolt 
of the Janizaries, which absorbed the attention of Selim, and by his 
sudden death in 1520. 

77. The result of the election, which followed the death of Maximilian 
in 1519, has already been stated. The seven electors, conscious of the 
enormous powers they were bestowing, required from Charles a solemn 
guarantee of all their privileges ; and the Elector-Palatine, with the Arch- 
bishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, formed the " Electoral Union of 
the Rhine " for common defense. The new emperor, now in his twentieth 



* The name of Ximenes is rendered illustrious by his Polyglot edition of the Bible — 
the grandest literary work of his age, and one of the chief glories of the University of 
Alcala. It was the work of nine scholars, deeply versed in the ancient languages, who 
were sustained by the patronage and guided by the counsel of Ximenes. The Old Testa- 
ment contained the original Hebrew, with Chaldaic, Greek, and Latin versions ; the New 
Testament, the Greek and Vulgate. The type was cast at Alcala under the eye of Ximenes, 
as none yet existed in the Oriental character. The most ancient Hebrew texts were found 
among the confiscated property of the exiled Jews. 



FIELD OF CLOTH OF GOLD. 161 

year, showed little promise of the commanding character which after- 
ward distinguished him. He was sluggish in mind and weak in body; 
but the motto, ^'■Non Dum," (Not Yet,) which he assumed at his first 
tournament, expressed, perhaps, some consciousness of unawakened power. 
His Spanish subjects were deeply ofiended by his acceptance of the 
imperial crown ; and it was with difiiculty that Charles obtained a grant 
of money from the Cortes, to enable him to make a suitable appearance 
in his new dignity. 

78. On his way to Germany he visited the king of England in order 
to divert him from any alliance with France. Cardinal Wolsey was 
gained by gifts and promises ; the king was already opposed to France by 
his desire to renew the conquests of Henry V. He proceeded, however, 

to that celebrated interview with Francis I., which is ^ ,^„„ 

June, 1520. 
known as the Field of Cloth of Gold — so overladen with 

costly display were the tents and trappings of the courtiers on either side ; 
and in reading aloud his state-paper, prepared for the occasion, he is 
even said, by an affectation of courtesy, to have dropped his own cus- 
tomary title, " King of France." * The emperor waited at Gravelines 
for this visit to be over; and, subsequently, spent some days with Henry 
at Calais, in order to remove any favorable impression which the French 
king might have made. 

Charles was crowned as emperor-elect at Aix-la-Chapelle, in October, 
1520 ; and in the following January held his first Diet at Worms, where 
were transacted affairs of momentous importance, which must be related 
more in detail. 

I2,EC.A.:PIT"CrL-A.TI02sr. 

Ferdinand of Spain conquers Navarre ; joins the emperor, Pope, and English king in 
hostiUty to France. Brilhant but transient conquests of the French generals in Italy in 
1513. Battle of the Spurs lost by the French ; Terouenne taken and demolished by Henry 
VIII. James IV. of Scotland slain at Flodden. Marriage of Louis XII. with an English 
princess; he dies and is succeeded by Francis of Angouleme. Henry VIII., as heir to the 
Jwo lines of York and Lancaster, unites all parties in England. Charles, lord of the Neth- 
erlands, ultimately becomes king of Spain and emperor. The French armies, crossing the 
Alps by a new route, invade Italy and gain a great victory over the Swiss at Marignano ; 
but their king relinquishes most of its advantages by his alliance with the Medici, includ- 
ing Pope Leo X. The Emperor Maximilian is prevented by his poverty from dislodging 
the French from Italy. Charles, succeeding his grandfather, Ferdinand, offends the Span- 
iards by indulging his Flemish courtiers, and the Castilian cities form a Junta in oppo- 
sition. The prime-minister, Ximenes, punishes a revolt in Navarre with frightful severity; 
founds a university at Alcala, makes a famous edition of the Bible, conquers Oran for the 
Spanish crown. Under Sultan Selim, the Turkish power makes threatening advances. 
Charles, elected emperor, visits England and secures Cardinal Wolsey to his interests. 
The kings of France and England meet at the Field of Cloth of Gold. Four Electors form 
the Union of the Rhine for mutual protection against imperial usurpations. 



* It was only within the present century that the English sovereign abandoned his old 
style, " King of England, France, and Ireland." 
M. H. 11. 



162 MODERN HISTORY. 

THE REFORMATION. 

79. The reformation in religion, wliich led to the withdrawal of a 
large part of the Teutonic nations from the Roman Church, was among 
the most important events connected, either as cause or consequence, 
with the opening of the modern era. The luxury and venality of the 
papal court; its removal to, Avignon, to the neglect of the Pope's especial 
diocese ; the subsequent schism, during which the adherents of one pope 
were accustomed to ridicule and condemn the others ; the notoriously evil 
lives of such pontiffs as Sextus IV. and Alexander VI., and the vices of 
their clergy; the wars of Julius II. and the quarrels of many of his 
predecessors with the emperors — these were but a few of the many causes 
which had broken up the old traditional reverence for the popes as vicars 
of Christ and fathers of the Church. There had, indeed, never been a 
time when the doctrines of the Church were not called in question in 
some part of Europe; but the invention of printing ^ — now beginning to 
diffuse among the middle classes opinions and speculations which had 
hitherto existed only in cloisters or among the most learned — gave tre- 
mendous importance to the teachings of Luther. 

80. This remarkable man was the son of a Saxon miner, and had been 
born at Eisleben, in 1483. Like other poor scholars, he earned his daily 
bread by singing from door to door; and thus cultivated that love and 
talent for music which enabled him afterward to move the heart of Ger- 
many by his sacred songs. His studies at the University of Erfurt dis- 
ciplined and enriched his mind, while they inspired him with contempt 
for the frivolous technicalties which formed the greater part of the learn- 
ing of the age. In 1507, deep religious impressions led him to abandon 
the profession of law, and become a monk of the order of St. Augustine, 
His experience in the monastery at Erfurt led him to suspect the insuf- 
ficiency of the rites of the Church to give peace to the conscience ; but 
a Latin Bible, which he found chained in the library, and then read 
for the first time, afforded more effectual comfort to his mind. His sus- 
picions were confirmed during a visit which he made to 
Rome on business connected with his order. The warlike 

pomp and ambition of the Pope, the avowed infidelity of the clergy, 
and their sacrilegious contempt for the mysteries of the faith, shocked 
his religious nature ; in the midst of his ascent of the Holy Staircase, 
the words, "The just shall live by faith," flashed upon his mind and 
became the watch-word of the Reformation. 

81. Before this time, in 1508, Luther had been appointed professor of 
Theology in the new university of Wittenberg, where his clear and 
vigorous style drew crowds of students to bis lectures. Frederic the 
Wise, Elector of Saxony, was at once a devout member of the ancient 



THE REFORMATION. 163 

Church and a firm friend and protector of Luther, whom he prized as the 
chief ornament of his favorite university ; and tlie esteem in which the 
Saxon prince was held tliroughout the empire secured a respectful hearing 
to the doctrines of the reformer. The sale of "indulgences" was just 
then attracting new attention in Germany. This traffic, from apparently 
innocent beginnings, had risen by successive degrees to be the principal 
source of income to the papal treasury. At first, remission of temporal 
penalties for sin was promised to all who took part in the Crusades — 
then to those who founded churches or monasteries, or paid a certain 
amount of money as a commutation for personal service. It was after- 
ward to be obtained by the performance of pilgrimages, especially by 
visiting Rome during the years of Jubilee. 

82. It was Alexander VI. who first assumed to remit the penalties of 
sin in a future life, in consideration of money paid or penances performed 
in this; but, in the sixteenth century, the affections as well as the hopes 
and fears of the faithful were enlisted by the promise of releasing the 
souls of their departed friends from the pains of purgatory. " At the 
moment when the money clinks in the chest, the soul flies upward." 
Germany, whether from the credulity or piety of its people, was the great 
market for the sale of indulgences; and the immense sums of money 
remitted on this account to Rome were there named "the sins of the 
Germans." So open was the management of this revenue, that the great 
Augsburg bankers, the Fuggers, farmed it like any other tax ; and por- 
tions of it were sometimes granted by the Pope to temporal princes for 
limited times. Thus, Frederic the Wise had himself obtained the sale of 
indulgences in Saxony for the purpose of building a bridge over the 
Elbe ; the king of Hungary, in 1508, received two-thirds of the proceeds 
in his kingdom for the prosecution of his wars against the Turks ; and 
the emperor at one time permitted the sale only on condition of the pay- 
ment of one-third into his treasury. The extravagance of the court of 
Leo X. demanded increased revenues, and the sale of indulgences was 
therefore pushed with greater energy than ever, during the years which 
followed Luther's return from Rome. Albert, Elector of Mentz and Pri- 
mate of Germany — a young and dissolute churchman — had purchased 
his see at a ruinous price, and was aided by the Pope to pay for it, by a 
special dispensation of indulgences. 

S3. One John Tetzel, a Dominican monk, but a man of infamous char- 
acter, was his agent, and traveling through the country offered not only 
remission of past sins, but indulgence for future transgressions at a regu- 
larly graded tariff* of prices. Animated by his new and ardent belief in 
justification by faith alone, Luther preached with great energy against 
the traffic, and refused absolution to any of his hearers who should buy 
the wares of Tetzel. A more decisive act, which is celebrated as the 



164 MODERN HISTORY. 

beginning of the Reformation, was the aflBxing to the door of the Castle 
,_T^ Church at Wittenberg, of ninety-five theses, in whicli Luther 

Oct* <ji) -LO-L/. 

denounced the papal assumptions, and declared that every 
sincere penitent would receive the remission of his sins without the 
intervention of the Church. 

84. Tetzel and others published replies, and news of the affair reached 
Rome; but the Pope, who cared little for doctrine, affected to regard the 
dispute as a mere monkish quarrel, and praised the genius of Luther in 
highly complimentary terms. Dr. John Eck, however, wrote a book to 
show the identity of Luther's heresy with that of Huss. Luther's reply 
showed so many weak points in the argument of Eck, that the latter, 
in revenge, spared no effort to excite the Pope to interfere. Luther was, 
in fact, summoned to Rome; but as the Elector of Saxony, his sovereign, 
forbade him to go, and demanded that he should be tried in Germany, 
Cardinal Cajetan was sent as papal nuncio to decide the case in the Diet 
of Augsburg. Appearing before this assembly, Luther declared his readi- 
ness to retract all his doctrines, provided that they were proved erroneous 
by comparison with Holy Scripture. The cardinal refused all discussion, 
and scornfully rejected the second offer of the Reformer to submit his 
theses to the four universities of Basle, Freiburg, Louvain, and Paris. Per- 
ceiving that a just judgment was out of the question, Luther drew up an 
appeal to the Pope, which he affixed to the cathedral of Augsburg, and, 
quitting that city, returned to his post at Wittenberg. Three-fourths of 
the German people were now on his side ; and the most enlightened men 
of the age — poets, painters, and scholars — joined in doing honor to his 
piety and moral energy. 

85. The war of opinions was interrupted a year or two by several 
political causes. Upon the death of Maximilian, the imperial crown was 
first offered to Frederic of Saxony, and though he refused it and rec- 
ommended the young king of Spain, yet Charles, who owed him his 
crown, could not immediately offend the Elector by punishing a man who 
enjoyed his patronage and esteem. Charles, too, had quarrels of his own 
with Leo X., concerning the Inquisition in Spain, and purposely favored 
the Lutherans for the sake of annoying the Pope. These matters being 

settled, a papal bull was issued, requiring the reformer to 
burn his books and abstain thenceforth from preaching or 
writing. Luther, whose mind was now more free from superstition than 
when he began his work, publicly burned the bull before a gate of 
Wittenberg. The next month he and all his disciples were solemnly 
excommunicated from the Catholic Church, and the emperor summoned 
him to appear befoi-e the Diet then sitting at Worms. 

86. His journey thither was a triumphal procession, for the people of 
many towns came a distance of miles to meet and escort him. Though 



THE REFORMATION. 165 

he was accompanied by an imperial herald and protected by a safe- 
conduct signed by Charles himself, his friends feared for his life; but 
Luther replied to their remonstrances: " Huss has been burned, but the 
truth has not been consumed with him ; go I will, were there as many 
devils aiming at me as there are tiles upon the roofs." Entering Worms, 
he was escorted to his lodgings by a crowd of nobles and citizens. The 
next day he appeared before the Diet. As he entered the great hall, 
George Frundsberg, a noted military leader, tapped him on the arm, say- 
ing, " Little monk, little monk, thou art doing a more daring thing than 
I or any other general ever ventured on. But if thou art confident in 
thy cause, go on, in God's name, and be of good cheer, for He will not 
forsake thee." 

87. In his examination before the Diet, Luther admitted that he had 
expressed himself concerning the Pope and the clergy with unbecoming 
violence, but he refused to retract any of his teachings unless they could 
be refuted from the Bible. Several princes desired to seize him, in spite 
of the safe-conduct ; but the emperor replied to their petitions, " No, I 
will not blush like Sigismund at Constance!" He permitted Luther to 
depart, but warned him to expect henceforth the treatment due to a 
heretic. The Edict of Worms enacted that whoever sheltered the 
reformer, or printed, sold, bought, or read his books, should incur the 
penalty of outlawry. Soon after his departure from Worms, Luther was 
seized by a company of horsemen in masks, and shut up in a Thuringian 
castle. This, however, was not the act of his enemies, but had been 
ordered by the Elector Frederic as the only means of securing him from 
their violence. It was generally believed that he had been murdered ; 
and the period of seclusion which followed was spent by Luther in the 
most important of all his works, the translation of the Scriptures into the 
German tongue. 

88. During the same years with the German reformation, a kindred 

movement took place in Switzerland, under the influence of Ulrich Zwin- 

gli, a priest of Glarus. Born a few months later than Luther, Zwingli, 

like him, on coming to manhood, adopted the Scriptures as his only 

standard of faith ; and when the sale of indulgences became infamously 

common in his country, he denounced it in no less energetic- terms. As 

citizen of a republic, he took a more active part than Luther in national 

affairs; and strongly opposed the foreign enlistment of her soldiery, 

which had disgraced Switzerland for more than a half a century. Being 

transferred to Zurich, Zwingli obtained from the town- , ^ ^„„ 

' * A. D. 1520. 

council of that place, an edict forbidding any thing to be 
preached, except what could be proved from the Word of God. Three 
years later, by the same authority, the veneration of images and relics 
was forbidden, and wine as well as bread was granted to the laity in the 



166 MODERN HISTORY. 

holy Communion. The reformation spread rapidly, especially in the 
western or French-speaking cantons of Switzerland, and its changes — 
owing, perhaps, to the freedom-loving character of the people — were more 
radical than in Germany. Luther desired to retain all the doctrines and 
practices of the Church which were not contrary to the Scriptures, while 
Zwingli desired to reject all that were not thereby expressly commanded 
or inculcated. This difference led to an unhappy controversy between the 
two great reformers, which, undoubtedly, checked the progress of reforma- 
tion. In Switzerland the mingling of civil with religious questions occa- 
sioned a war between the Catholic and Protestant cantons, in which 
Zwingli ultimately lost his life. A. D. 1531. 

89. Meanwhile the disappointment of Francis I., in the bestowal of the 
imperial crown, gave rise to that long series of wars between France 
and Austria, which was to continue, with only slight intermissions, nearly 
two hundred years — A. D. 1520-1716. Andrew de Foix, a relative of 
the deposed king of Navarre, invaded that kingdom, and, as its fortresses 
had been nearly all destroyed, (see § 73,) made a rapid and easy conquest 
of the whole territory. Encouraged by this success, he tried to form a junc- 
tion with the Spanish insurgents, who had obtained control of the imbecile 
queen, Joanna, and sought, in her name, to expel the regent appointed 
by Charles. The demands addressed by the Castilian Junta to their king, 
show just views of the rights and interests of the common people. They 
required the sovereign to reside in Spain and to appoint no foreigner to 
any civil or ecclesiastical office — demanded an assembly of the Cortes once 
in three years, and guarded the independence of their members t)y a rule 
that no one of them should receive any place or pension from the king. 
Judges were to be supported by regular salaries, and forbidden to receive 
any part of the fines or forfeitures of persons whom they condemned ; 
bishops to reside in their dioceses at least half the year ; indulgences to 
be sold only with the consent of the Cortes, and the proceeds applied 
wholly to wars against infidels. 

90. This bill of rights being rejected by Charles, the Junta proceeded to 
open war; but their army of 20,000 men was at length defeated and 
its leader executed. The attempted union with the French, above men- 
tioned, had been prevented by the advance of the royal army ; but when 
the French commander laid siege to a Castilian town, even the insur- 
gents themselves turned against him, and compelled him to retire into 

Navarre, where, having been defeated and captured, he died 
June, 1521. ) ) t. r ! 

a few days later of his wounds. Navarre was speedily re- 
covered by the Spaniards. The petty wars carried on by the French king 
with Germany and the Netherlands had no more important results. 

91. Leo. X., meanwhile, pursued a shifting policy, allying himself 
successively with either of the great princes who would aid or permit him 



THE CONFERENCE OF CALAIS. 167 

to seize the most valuable estates in Italy for the aggrandizement of his 
house. In this way the duchy of Urbino and the lordships of Modena, 
Reggio, Perugia, and Fermo had fallen into his possession. In 1521, he 
entered into a more important league with Francis I., to drive the 
Spaniards out of southern Italy, whence large additions were to be made 
to the States of the Church, and the rest bestowed in full sovereignty upon 
the second son of the French king. Some delay occurring in the ratifica- 
tion of this treaty, the Pope made a counter-alliance with the emperor, 
to expel the French from northern Italy. In return for being allowed to 
seize the Venetian territories, Charles promised to extirpate the heresy 
of Luther and his adherents ; and this agreement was signed in the pres- 
ence of the imperial Diet on the same day with the Edict of Worms. 

92. Three months later, a conference was held at Calais between the 
representatives of the Pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and 
England. Henry VIII. had offered his services as mediator between Fran- 
cis and Charles ; and his great minister, Wolsey, was courted and flattered 
by both parties, who wished to gain him. The emperor's promises were the 
more magnificent; Wolsey was already his pensioner to the amount of 
10,000 ducats yearly ; and his vast influence was pledged to secure the 
papal crown to the English cardinal at the next vacancy. The claims of 
the rival sovereigns were, however, too many and too great to be recon- 
ciled. Francis demanded the two kingdoms of Naples and Navarre ; 
Charles required the abandonment of Milan and Genoa by the French, 
the restitution of Burgundy, and the release of homage on his part for 
his possessions in the Low Countries. After all its grand pretensions, the 
Conference of Calais merely regulated some disputes concerning the her- 
ring fisheries of France and Flanders! The German and English sover- 
eigns immediately after concluded a treaty, by which each engaged to 
invade France with 40,000 men ; and the Pope, with his own weapons, 
took part in the enterprise by excommunicating Francis I., and releasing 
the French nation from its allegiance. In a subsequent treaty between 
Charles, Henry, and Leo, all agreed to proceed with rigor against heretics, 
and the English king, having lately published a book against Luther, was 
rewarded with the title, " Defender of the Faith," which is still borne 
by his successors. 

93. The war which now broke out can not be related in detail. That 
part of the Navarrese kingdom which lies north of the Pyrenees was 
recovered by the Albrets, and never again lost. In the Netherlands, the 
French also gained the town and fortress of Hesdin, but lost Tournay. 
In Italy, which was to be the chief seat of war, Lautrec, an able general, 
but a cruel and rapacious tyrant, held the viceroyalty of Milan, and used 
it only as a means of enriching his family at the expense of the people. 
The dissensions of the Parisian court crippled the war-movements, and in 



168 MODERN HISTORY. 

three months lost to France the Milanese duchy. Two hostile parties in 
the court were led, one by the king's mother, the other by the Countess 
of Chateaubriand, sister of the general, Lautrec. When a large sum of 
money was raised for the payment of the army, Mme. Louise of Savoy 
seized it for her own use; and the 20,000 Swiss commanded by Lautrec, 
discontented for want of pay, either marched home or went over to the 
imperial service. Lautrec was forced to shut himself up in Milan, but a 
night-attack being made by the Spanish infantry upon the Roman gate of 
that city, it was opened by the Ghibelline faction, who hated the French ; 
and Lautrec with his brother sought safety in flight. 

94. The fortress of Milan still held out; but the Lombard cities, with 

scarcely an exception, opened their gates to the imperial troops. Parma 

and Piacenza were likewise taken, and, in fulfillment of the treaty, were 

held for the Pope. The joy of these successes is said to have occasioned 

the death of Leo X.; other and more probable accounts 
Dec, 1521. ' ^ 

ascribe it to poison. He died in the forty-sixth year of his 

age and the ninth of his pontificate. This event threw the affairs of the 

victorious allies into confusion. The papal army was disbanded for want 

of funds; Urbino, Perugia, and other places gladly received back their 

native rulers. 

95. After a long and violent contest in the conclave, Adrian, regent of 
Spain and former tutor of the emperor, was chosen to be pope. His 
narrow scholastic education made him a bitter opponent of Luther, 

though as an honest man he deplored the corruptions 
of the Church. He began his reign with stern efforts 
at reform ; entered Rome bare-footed, in scornful rebuke of the luxury of 
his predecessors, and turned with horror from the rare sculptures which 
the taste of Leo had collected in the Vatican, exclaiming, " These are 
pagan idols !" One old servant provided as before for his humble house- 
hold. The elegant courtiers of Leo looked on with disgust, which was 
increased when their new sovereign attempted to retrieve his ruined 
finances by abolishing many useless and expensive ofiices ; but the com- 
mon people regarded with reverent enthusiasm the self-denying humility 
of their pontiff. 

96. The French, having been once more defeated by the imperial army, 
withdrew from Italy, surrendering all but the three citadels of Milan, 
Novara, and Cremona. Genoa was taken by the Germans, and Antoni- 
otto Adorno became doge. 

The departure of the regent, Adrian, from Spain compelled the emperor 
to visit that discontented country. Visiting England on his way, he 
renewed his agreement with Wolsey by fresh promises, flattered the 
nation at large by making the Earl of Surrey his admiral, and induced 
the king to declare war against France. 



CHARLES V. IN SPAIN. 169 

97. Called thus to contend with the greatest powers of Europe, Francis 
I. secured his eastern frontier by a treaty with the Regent Margaret, by 
which he promised to make no wars in or against her territory of Franche 
Comte for three years. This treaty, often renewed, left the two Burgun- 
dies in the enjoyment of peace, industry, and prosperity for more than a 
century, while the Austro-French wars were raging around them. The 
three duchies of Savoy, Lorraine, and Bar were also neutral territories, 
which, with the county of Burgundy, completely covered the eastern side 
of France. 

98. Fixing his residence in Spain, Charles won the hearts of his sub- 
jects by his lenity to those who had rebelled during his absence, by 
adopting the dress, language, and manners of the country, and by exclud- 
ing all foreigners from employment in Church or State. At the same 
time he increased his own power at the expense of the popular liberties, 
by making the three estates of the Cortes meet in separate places, thus 
preventing a concentration of their strength ; by gaining over individual 
representatives of the commons to his own interests; and by permitting 
no debate except in the presence of a presiding officer of his own appoint- 
ment. His policy toward the Moors was as unjust as that of his grand- 
father toward the Jews. That refined and industrious people contributed 
not a little to the prosperity of Spain, while living in the exercise of 
their own religion, but in obedience to the laws of the land. Suddenly, 
in 1525, it was resolved to compel them to a change of faith. Their 
copies of the Koran were seized, their mosques shut up ; all who were not 
baptized before a certain date were exiled from Spain ; but to prevent 
their reaching Africa, all the ports, except Corunna in the extreme north- 
west, were closed to them. A subsequent and still harsher edict sen- 
tenced all who refused a change of religion to forfeit their goods and be 
sold into slavery. This atrocious treatment drove many into open revolt. 
Thousands were slain ; 100,000, more fortunate than the rest, escaped to 
Africa ; those who remained, conformed unwillingly to the rites, customs, 
and language of their conquerors ; but they were deprived of all privi- 
leges and reduced to the condition of beasts of burden. 

Dissensions and decay in the Church and diffusion of intelligence among the people 
lead to religious reformation. Luther, an Augustinian monk and professor of theology 
at Wittenberg, preaches against indulgences. His 95 theses rouse all Germany to contro- 
versy. He is tried before the Diet of Augsburg, is condemned by a bull of Leo X.— which 
he bums — and is denounced again by the Diet of Worms. Concealed for a time in Thu- 
ringia, he begins to translate the Scriptures into German. Zwingli nioves reform in Swit- 
zerland : differing in some points from Luther, he is bitterly opposed by him. Series of 
Austro-Frankish wars begun by French invasion of Navarre. Bill of Rights presented by 
the Castilian Junta to Charles is rejected, and a rebellion ensues. Pope Leo X. plots alter- 
nately to drive the Spaniards from southern and the French from northern Italy; makes a 



170 MODERN HISTORY. 

compact with the Emperor at Worms to crush the Reformation. Conference at Calais fails 
to arrest the war, and is followed by a fresh league against France. Intrigues of the 
French court occasion defeat of Lautrec and loss of the Milanese. Imperial and papal 
arms triumphant in Italy. Leo dies and is succeeded by Adrian VI. Peace of Burgundy 
and the neutral duchies secured by treaty. Charles conciliates the Spaniards while steal- 
ing away their liberty ; but cruelly persecutes the Moors. 

Wars in Italy. 

99. Europe was now threatened anew by the Turks. Solyman II, who 

succeeded Selim in 1520, concentrated his great military talents upon the 

conquest of Hungary and Ehodes. The small army raised in the south 

of Hungary could offer no effective resistance, and, in the summer of 

1521, Sabatz, Semlin, and finally Belgrade, fell into the power of Solyman. 

The Isle of Rhodes was the stronghold of the Knights of St. John of 

Jerusalem. Its capture was undertaken by a force of 300 Turkish ships 

and 110,000 men. The knights, under their illustrious Grand Master, 

L'lle Adam, fought long and valiantly, but at last they were compelled 

to surrender to overwhelming numbers. After several re- 
Dec 21 1522, 

' " ' movals, the surviving members of the order were presented 

by the emperor with the island of Malta. 

100. Unable to combine the Christian princes of Europe against the 
Turks, Pope Adrian formed a powerful league against the king of France, 
whose indifference was supposed to have thwarted the former attempt. 
The prompt invasion of Italy, with which Francis intended to meet 
and disconcert this alliance, was delayed by the sudden and fatal defec- 
tion of his kinsman and most powerful subject, the Constable de Bourbon. 
This great vassal possessed by inheritance or marriage two duchies, four 
counties, and two viscounties, beside many smaller lordships in the center 
of France, and might even hope to inherit the crown itself in case of the 
king's dying without sons. His great military services had been rewarded 
with the highest dignities and revenues ; but his cold and haughty tem- 
per ill suited the jovial disposition of the king, and the court favorites 
delighted to annoy so powerful a rival. Especially the queen-mother, 
whose vanity had been incurably wounded by the Constable, pursued him 
with unrelenting enmity. Representing an elder, though female, line of 
the House of Bourbon, she sued him before the Parliament of Paris for 
all the possessions of that duchy, and secured to herself the private reve- 
nues of Anne of France, his mother-in-law. 

101. Under this load of insults and injuries, the proud heart of 
Bourbon resolved upon a bitter revenge. He opened negotiations with 
the emperor and the king of England, to betray into their hands the 
French kingdom, which was then to be divided among the three princes; 
the hereditary dominions of the Bourbons, with Provence and the terri- 
tories of Lyons and Dauphine, being erected into an independent sov- 



FBANCIS I. IN ITALY. 171 

ereignty for the Constable himself. The conspiracy seemed on the point 
of success. English forces landed at Calais, and, being joined by an 
imperial army from the Netherlands, advanced within thirty-three miles 
of Paris. But the invasions from the frontiers of Germany and Spain 
proved failures, and the discovery of the plot by the French king pre- 
vented the vassals and retainers of Bourbon from executing their part of 
the agreement. Bourbon himself, instead of appearing on the field of 
war as a sovereign prince, master of a great army and of many provinces, 
had to flee into Germany attended by only sixty gentlemen, and to 
present himself to the emperor like a destitute soldier of fortune. 

102. At this crisis Pope Adrian died and was succeeded by the Cardi- 
nal Giulio de'Medici, who took the name of Clement VII. Wolsey, again 
disappointed, had to content himself with the rank of papal legate in 
England, to which were attached extraordinary powers. In the spring of 
1524 Bourbon entered Italy as lieutenant-general of the emperor. The 
incompetent Bonnivet, then commanding the French forces, was forced 
by the allies to retreat into France. In a battle near Eomagnano, the 
Chevalier Bayard was killed. An imperial army under Bourbon and the 
Marquis Pescara now invaded France by the Cornice Road, received the 
surrender of Aix and several other towns, and laid siege to Marseilles. 
Bourbon was disappointed, however, in his hope of French recruits, and 
thwarted not less by the jealousies of the imperial generals whom he out- 
ranked, than by the suspicions of the English king, who, moved by Wol- 
sey's revenge, and, fearing that the emperor would gain more than his 
share of the spoils, delayed or refused the promised supplies of money. 
At length the allies were compelled to raise the siege and make a hasty 
retreat into Italy. 

103. The French king speedily followed with a well appointed army 
of 30,000 men, and besieged Pavia. The Pope, under cover of neutrality, 
made a secret treaty with Francis, who, elated by this turn of affairs and 
the evident disorganization of his enemies, actually sent the Duke of 
Albany with an army to undertake the conquest of Naples. His rash- 
ness proved his ruin. The imperial army, now reinforced, 

moved from Lodi and encamped within a mile of the French 
lines before Pavia. A night-attack was planned in concert with the gar- 
rison, but day dawned before the preliminary movements were completed, 
and the French then coming up, the battle became general. The French 
artillery produced great havoc in the ranks of the enemy, until Francis, 
inconsiderately charging in advance of his guns, compelled his men to 
cease firing lest they should endanger him. The German reserves were 
now brought forward, while the garrison of Pavia prepared to attack in the 
rear. The French yielded and fled. The king himself, while endeavoring 
to rally his Swiss, was unhorsed and taken prisoner. He was recognized 



172 MODERN HISTORY. 

by an attendant of Bourbon, who besought him to surrender to the Con- 
stable; but the king scornfully refused to become the captive of his 
rebellious vassal, and calling for Lannoy, gave his sword into his hands. 
The French army was permitted to retreat, and, within a fortnight, the 
last soldier had crossed the Alps. 

104. When the news reached Madrid, the emperor forbade all public 
rejoicings, and studied to dissemble the exultation which he might natu- 
rally be supposed to feel. France was filled with terror ; Paris was 
guarded as if the enemy were already at the gates. The queen-mother, 
into whose hands the defense of the kingdom was thrown at this perilous 
crisis, had alienated by her intrigues those who should have been her best 
supporters. Of three chief princes of the royal blood, one Avas a declared 
traitor; another, the king's brother-in-law, had disgraced himself by 
cowardice at Pavia, and had since died of vexation and chagrin ; and the 
third, the Duke of Vendome, was an enemy to the queen-mother, and 
suspected of a secret understanding with Bourbon. He silenced this sus- 
picion, however, by generously forgetting his grievances and joining 
Louisa at Lyons. The Count of Guise, founder of a family destined to 
play a still more important part in the history of France, rendered good 
service by suppressing a peasant-war which had spread from Germany into 
Lorraine, Champagne, and Burgundy. The Parliament of Paris, which 
had convened immediately upon the news of the king's captivity, pre- 
sented a long list of wrongs, and insisted upon redress before granting 
supplies or taking measures for the public defense. Among the least 
oflFensive of their demands to the regent was that for the extermination of 
the Lutheran heretics, who were held responsible for all the misfortunes 
that had come upon France. Two of these pious and unoffending people 
were shortly biirned at Paris. 

105. Four months after the battle of Pavia, the royal prisoner was 
conveyed into Spain, where he was subjected to a severe and rigorous 
confinement. Vexation of mind threw him into a dangerous illness ; and 
Charles, who had not hitherto deigned to visit his former "good father," 
" friend," and " brother," now feared that his prisoner would escape him 
without subscribing the hard terms which he desired to impose. He 
went to see Francis in his prison, and a few kind words so raised the 
spirits of the captive, that his health began to improve. His favorite 
sister, the recently widowed Duchess of Alengon, undertook an embassy 
to Spain, with full powers to negotiate a peace between the two mon- 
archs, but she failed to obtain easier terms for France. Charles insisted 
upon a partition of that kingdom, by which he himself was to receive 
Burgundy, Picardy, and whatever else had belonged to Charles the Bold 
at his death ; all the Bourbon possessions, with Provence, were to be con- 
ferred with a royal title upon the Constable, and Normandy, Guienne, 



THE TREATY OF MADRID. 173 

and Gascony were to revert to the king of England. The dominion of 
Francis would thus have scarcely exceeded that of the first of the Capets. 

106. Subsequently, the demands of Bourbon were reduced to a free 
pardon and restitution to his hereditary possessions. The towns of 
Picardy, so long in dispute between Louis XI. and Charles the Bold, were 
also abandoned by the emperor ; and the Treaty of Madrid, thus modified, 
was sworn by Francis. "on the word and honor of a king." He had pre- 
viously stated in the presence of his embassadors, that he had acted 
under compulsion, and did not intend to execute the conditions which he 
was about to sign. The treaty was confirmed, however, by his betrothal 
with the emperor's sister, Eleanora, the widowed queen of Portugal, and 
the two sons of Francis were given as hostages for its fulfillment. 

107. Once free and upon his own soil, he refused to ratify his engage- 
ments with the Spanish ministers at Bayonne, on the plea that he must 
first consult the Estates of France and Burgundy ; and when these were 
assembled, they insisted, as had probably been prearranged, that the king 
could not annul his coronation-oath by any subsequent agreement. The 
Burgundian envoys also declared that they would resist by force of arms 
any attempt to sever them from France. The king then offered the 
imperial embassadors, who were present, two millions of crowns as a com- 
pensation for Burgundy, and promised in all other respects to fulfill the 
treaty. The emperor, when informed of this evasion, remarked that it 
was easy for the king of France to redeem at least his personal honor by 
returning into Spain ; but the honor of Francis was of a different tone 
from that of Regulus, or even of his ancestor. King John. 

108. Meanwhile, the Italians had been thrown into consternation by 
the too decisive victory of their ally at Pavia ; for the whole peninsula 
seemed at the mercy of the emperor. Another Holy Alliance was formed 
against him by the Pope, the Venetians, the Duke of Milan, and the king 
of France. Francesco Sforza had been restored to his duchy only as a 
vassal, and his chancellor, Morone, now devised a plot for destroying at 
a blow the union and freedom of Italy. Pescara, Italian by birth, though 
Spaniard by descent, was known to be disaffected toward the emperor. 
He was informed by a trusty messenger that all the states of Italy were 
ready to unite in placing the crown of Naples upon his head ; provided, 
that he would disband the imperial army, of which he had sole command, 
and thus aid in delivering the peninsula from the German yoke. Find- 
ing that this conspiracy was already known in Madrid, Pescara resolved 
to meet the advances of the Milanese with a counter-plot. He invited 
Morone to a personal interview, and took care to have Antonio de Leyva, 
the Spanish general, concealed behind the tapestry. When the unsuspect- 
ing chancellor had fully disclosed the plans of his master, he was seized, 
and found himself the victim rather than the partner of Pescara. 



174 MODERN HISTORY. 

109. Francesco Sforza was deprived of all his dominions, which were 
then bestowed by the Emperor upon the Duke of Bourbon. Pescara died 
a few weeks later. Morone remained a prisoner in Milan, ^mtil Bourbon, 
wanting money, first sentenced him to death, and then sold him life 
and liberty for 20,000 ducats. The Milanese people, who had suffered 
.new miseries at every change of masters, hailed the arrival of Bourbon in 
the hope of a firm and settled government. He promised to remove his 
army, which had been quartered upon the citizens, upon the payment of 
300,000 crowns. But when that sum was raised, the soldiers still refused 
to move, and some of the Milanese, despairing of relief, put an end to 
their own lives. 

110. The Pope was soon subjected to still greater misfortunes. Cardi- 
nal Colonna, a man of revengeful and lawless temper, an old enemy of 
Clement VII., with whom, however, he had been formally reconciled, 

suddenly raised an army of his own vassals and retainers, 

Sept., 1526. •' •' , . p . 

and marched upon Eome. The Pope shut himself up in 
the Castle of St. Angelo, but for want of provisions was compelled to 
surrender in three days. The freebooters who followed Colonna plundered 
the Vatican palace and the church of St. Peter. The kings of France 
and England hastened to send money and troops ; and Clement was soon 
able to exact a terrible vengeance from the Colonnas. Their palaces in 
Eome were leveled with the ground, and their estates in the country were 
ravaged by the papal forces. 

111. But a fresh calamity now threatened the Eternal City. Frunds- 
berg, the famous Lutheran captain, marched from Germany at the head of 
11,000 brigands, who had enlisted less in the hope of pay than of plunder. 
The papal capital was at once the richest and the weakest object that could 
tempt them, and, joined by the unpaid and hungry troops of Bourbon at 
Milan, they marched upon Rome. On the way they were met by a papal 
embassy proposing a truce; the soldiery, fierce for their promised prize, 
rose in open mutiny, and even leveled their spears at the breast of their 
own general, who was trying to pacify them. Stung by their ingratitude, 
Frundsberg fell into convulsions from which he never recovered ; and 
the soldiers, too late struck with remorse, subsided into order, only reiter- 

„ .„„ ating their cry, "Rome! Rome!" On the evening of 

May 5, they arrived before the walls, and the next morn- 
ing orders were given for the assault. Bourbon was placing a ladder with 
his own hands, when he received a ball in his side. Feeling that he must 
die, he covered his face with his cloak that he might not be recognized, 
and breathed his last, while his victorious followers were making their 
entrance into the city. The Prince of Orange was chosen by the troops 
to be their commander-in-chief. 

112. Rome was seized with a panic. The Pope, with a crowd of cardi- 



WABS IN ITALY. 175 

nals, nobles, and citizens, took refuge in the castle of St. Angelo. The 
city was abandoned to the Spanish and German soldiery, and was filled 
for two weeks with horrid scenes of massacre, pillage, and desecration. 
The treasures, which for centuries had been flowing from all Christendom 
toward Rome, were now the prize of a starved and greedy multitude, 
whom neither fear nor conscience could restrain. 

113. The Florentines availed themselves of the presence of the 
imperial army to expel the Medici, and, placing themselves under the 
protection of France, sought to restore the Republic which Savonarola 
had set up. Venice recovered Ravenna and Cervia, and the Dukes 
of Urbino and Ferrara revenged themselves for former disasters, by seiz- 
ing several cities in the States of the Church. It was expected and de- 
sired by many that the Emperor would fix his residence in Rome, and 
thus restore to the Western Empire its ancient capital. 

114. Charles affected the utmost humility and moderation. He attired 
himself and his court in mourning for the misfortunes of the Pope, and 
ordered prayers in all the churches for his deliverance. This was effected 
by treaty, six months after the capture of Rome. The pontiff" paid a ran- 
som of several hundreds of thousands of gold crowns, promised to assem- 
ble a general Council for the reformation of the Church and the suppres- 
sion of heresy, and engaged never more to meddle in the affairs of 
Naples or the Milanese. 

115. A French army under Lautrec was already in Italy ; and a 
French fleet commanded by the great admiral, Andrew Doria, besieged 
Genoa, expelled the Ghibelline doge, Adorni, and set up a governor in 
the name of the king of France. Lautrec took Pavia by storm and gave 
it up to plunder, in revenge for its resistance to Francis and his conse- 
quent misfortunes in 1524. The Pope being now liberated, Lautrec pro- 
ceeded to the siege of Naples, in which he was aided by a Genoese and 
Venetian fleet. The city must have been taken, had not the French 
king, intent only upon his own pleasures, withheld the needed supplies 
from his army, and at the same time offended the Dorias by most injuri- 
ous treatment. Andrew Doria transferred his services to the Emperor, 
and, sailing to Naples, forced the French commander to raise the siege. 
Lautrec was already dead from a pestilence which had carried off" the 
greater part of his army. This fourth invasion of Italy by the armies 
of Francis I. was a failure. The Prince of Orange was established as 
viceroy of Naples for the Spanish sovereign. The French were expelled 
from Genoa, and the republic reorganized under imperial protection. The 
old feud of Guelfs and Ghibellines was ended by a more just and effi- 
cient constitution ; public affairs were intrusted to a Council of Four 
Hundred; and Genoa suff'ered no more revolutions until its conquest by 
the French in 1797. 



176 MODERN HISTORY. 

116. The war between Charles and Francis, after dragging another 
year, was terminated by the treaty of Cambray, commonly called the 
" Ladies' Peace," as it was negotiated by the Emperor's aunt and the 
King's mother. Francis kept Burgundy, but surrendered all his claims 
in Italy, together with the feudal sovereignty of Flanders and Artois. 
The House of Bourbon -was reinstated in its dignities and possessions. 
The sons of Francis were redeemed from their captivity, and were accom- 
panied from Spain by the Emperor's sister, who soon became queen of 
France. The wars of the French in Italy had continued 36 years, from 
the invasion by Charles VIII. 

E,E:c.A.:pia?xrxj-A.Ti03sr. 

Hungary invaded and Rhodes conquered by the Turks. Knights of St. John settled 
finally at Malta. League against Francis I. joined by the Constable de Bourbon, who plots 
the partition of France. Clement VII. (Cardinal Medici) becomes pope. Bourbon and 
Pescara drive Bonnivet from Italy and invade France. Francis I. in turn enters Italy 
and besieges Pavia ; is taken prisoner and conveyed into Spain ; being released, he evades 
the fulfillment of the treaty which he signed at Madrid, and joins a new league of the 
Pope and other powers against the Emperor. Plot of Morone for deliverance of Italy 
being discovered, leads to the fall of the Sforzas. Bourbon becomes duke of Milan. Rome 
twice captured and plundered, once by Cardinal Colonna and again by an imperial army 
under Bourbon. French recapture Genoa and Pavia, and besiege Naples, but are thwarted 
by pestilence, and the defection of the Dorias. Genoa becomes independent. Wars in 
Italy closed by the Treaty of Cambray, 1529. 

Progress of the Eefobmatioij. 

117. The Eeformation, meanwhile, had made only the more rapid 
progress, while the attention of spiritual and temporal princes had been 
absorbed by affairs in Italy. Luther was disturbed in his retreat at the 
Wartburg by news of violent and fanatical movements among his fol- 
lowers, which threatened discredit to the cause of religious freedom. 
Carlstadt, his substitute at Wittenberg, had nearly broken up the Uni- 
versity by denouncing profane learning, encouraging the students to 
deface the churches, and himself resorting to the most ignorant persons 
. ^ „„, for instruction in the Scriptures. Though still outlawed by 

A. D. 1522. r & j 

the imperial edict, Luther returned to Wittenberg, and by 
preaching and writing, threw his great influence into the restoration of 
order and reason. 

118. Several causes were now disturbing the peace of Germany. In 
spite of the abolition of the right of private war, knights still scoured 
the country with their retainers, robbed merchants and rich travelers, 
and even cut off the right hands of their prisoners. Franz von Sick- 
ingen, the greatest of the Rhenish knights, became the head of a league 
formed by his order in hostility to the princes. The knights professed a 
bitter hatred of the priests, and claimed the support of Luther ; but the 



FEOGEESS OF THE EEFOEMATION. 177 

Eeformei, who dreaded nothing so much as the projiagation of his doc- 
trine by the sword, only exhorted Sickingen and his companions to 
observe the peace of the empire. They declared war, nevertheless, 
against the Archbishop of Treves, who was aided by the Landgrave, 
Philip of Hesse, and Frederic, the Elector-Palatine. Sickingen, after 
being deprived of many of his castles, was besieged at last in Landstuhl ; 
and its massive walls being reduced to u heap of ruins by artillery, he 
was found in one of the inner apartments, mortally wounded. " What 
have I done," exclaimed the archbishop, as he entered the vaulted cham- 
ber, " that you should attack me and my poor people ?" " Or I," said 
the Landgrave Philip, " that you should overrun my lands in my mi- 
nority?" "I must answer," replied Sickingen, "to a greater Lord." 
Being asked to confess his sins, he said " I have already in my heart con- 
fessed to God." The princes knelt in prayer, while the chaplain admin- 
istered the last religious rites, and their enemy expired. Twenty-seven 
castles of Sickingen and his friends, and most of the similar strongholds 
in Franconia, were soon dismantled or destroyed. 

119. The following years were marked by a terrible revolt of the 
peasantry in Suabia, Franconia, Lorraine, Alsace, and the Palatinate. 
These unfortunate people believed that the " new religion " was to put a 
sudden end to all the grievances under which they had so long and bit- 
terly suffered. They submitted to Luther their list of demands, the first 
of which was the right to choose their own religious teachers. Luther 
advised them to submit to their rulers, while he published an appeal to 
the latter, charging them with having occasioned the disturbances by 
their suppression of the Gospel. The peasants were joined 

by several nobles and knights, and gained some advantages 
over the armies sent to oppose them ; but they could not long withstand 
the cannon and thoroughly armed horsemen of their antagonists. They 
were defeated, and in multitudes of instances either hanged or tortured; 
100,000 persons are said to have been destroyed and their fertile fields 
made desolate. 

120. The fanaticism of one Thomas Miinzer prolonged the commotions. 
He drew around him crowds of idle and unprincipled people by proclaim- 
ing community of goods, and leading them to the plunder of churches, 
convents, and even castles. A young nobleman, who was sent to treat 
with them, was brutally put to death ; but in the battle which followed 
the disorderly crowd were slaughtered without mercy. 

121. The Catholic princes, Duke George of Saxony, the Electors of 
Mentz and Brandenburg, and others, now united themselves more closely 
to oppose the Eeformation, while the friends of the reformed 

1 • ^ 1 T ^ A. D. 1526. 

doctrines formed the League of Torgau, for mutual protec- 
tion in case of attack upon their religion. Both parties were ready for 
M. H.— 12. 



178 MODERN HISTORY. 

action in the Diet held at Spires, in June, 1626. The hostile relations 
between the Emperor and the Pope at this crisis, (see §§ 111-114,) and 
the pressing need of uniting all Germany against the Turks, led to a 
suspension of the Edict of Worms ; and, during the few years of tran- 
quillity which followed, the Reformation gained strength. In a subse- 
quent Diet at Spires the adherents of the ancient Church secured a 
decree against all innovations in worship or doctrine; and the reformed 
party entered a solemn protest against this decree, which gave to them, 
and by derivation to all who have since held their essential doctrines, 
the name of Protestants.* 

122. All Europe was now thrown into consternation by the movements 
of Solyman II., who, in the five years since his capture of Belgrade, had 
subdued Egypt, shaken the Persian kingdom to its foundations, and, turn- 
ing toward Europe, declared himself emperor of the West as well as of the 
East, aiming to make Constantinople again the capital of the world. Hun- 
gary was his first point of attack ; and that country was reduced by the 
wars of the great nobles to the last degree of weakness and poverty. The 
royal Council at Tolna were still disputing about means of resisting 
the Ottoman invasion, when the smoke of a burning town announced to 
them that the Turks, now numbering 300,000 men, had crossed the Drave 

and were in full march northward. King Louis II. awaited 

Aug., 1526. ^ 

them with only 20,000, in the marshy plain of Mohacz. 
His army consisted chiefly of heavily armed cavalry, while the Turk 
had availed himself of the latest improvements in fire-arms, and, beside 
his thoroughly drilled infantry, had three hundred well-mounted cannon 
in his camp. The dashing courage of the Hungarians was of little avail ; 
the flower of their nobility soon lay dead upon the fatal field, and the 
young king — now only in his twentieth year — was drowned or smoth- 
ered in the swamp in attempting to escape. 

123. Solyman marched toward Buda, burning towns and villages in 
his way. After two weeks' residence in the capital he withdrew, carrying 
with him the valuable library collected by Matthias Corvinus, and several 
works of art which served to adorn Constantinople. The vacant crowns 
of Hungary and Bohemia were claimed by the Archduke Ferdinand, 
(brother of the Emperor Charles,) who had married a sister of King 
Louis. He was crowned at Prague, Feb., 1527; but in Hungary he had 
a powerful rival in John Zapolya, the lord of seventy-two castles and the 



* These first Protestants may be here recorded : John, Elector of Saxony ; Philip, Land- 
grave of Hesse; the Dukes of Grubenhagen, Celle, and Mecklenburg; Prince Wolfgang 
of Anhalt ; two Counts of Mansfield ; George, Margrave of Brandenburg ; and the cities of 
Magdeburg, Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen, Windsheim, Memmin- 
gen, Lindau, Kempten, Heilbronn, Issny, Weissenburg, Nordlingen, and St. Gallen. 



WABS WITH THE TURKS. 179 

greatest of the Hungarian magnates, who was supported, moreover, by 
the influence and money of the French king and the Pope. Zapolya 
received the crown of St. Stephen in November, 1526 ; but a party among 
the nobles declared for Ferdinand, who advanced with a large army from 
Bohemia, gained the battle of Tokay, and, together with his consort, was 
crowned in turn with St. Stephen's diadem. 

124. Zapolya now made an alliance with the Sultan, who had con- 
quered the greater part of Bosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia, and 
advanced again in 1529 to the plain of Mohacz. Here Zapolya appeared 
and did homage for his crown, after which degrading ceremony he accom- 
panied the Grand Turk to Buda and aided in putting its garrison to the 
sword. The entire Turkish army, supported by a fleet in the Danube, 
now laid siege to Vienna. All parties in Germany united in this moment 
of general danger, and the defense was as determined as the attack was 
formidable. The very number of the Turks, moreover, made it difiicult to 
maintain' them in a hostile country, and by the middle of October they 
commenced their retreat. Zapolya was left to conduct the civil war with 
Ferdinand on his own account. 

125. The Emperor, who had resided eight years in Spain, visited Italy 
to restore the order so long interrupted by his wars with the king of 
France. The freedom of Florence, already sold by the Pope in his treaty 
with Charles at Barcelona, was now overthrown. Upon the refusal of the 
citizens to recall the Medici, the Prince of Orange was ordered to lay 
siege to the city. It was fortified by Michael Angelo, and valiantly de- 
fended by an army without the walls; but its best general having been 
slain in battle, and another proving a traitor, the city was compelled to 
receive an imperial garrison, to pay a heavy ransom, and agree to the 
hereditary rule of the Medici. The Prince of Orange was killed in the 
same battle ; and his titles and dominions were transferred, by the mar- 
riage of his sister, to the House of Nassau. 

126. The Emperor proceeded to Bologna, where he received from the 
Pope the iron crown of Lombardy and the imperial diadem. The Ger- 
man Electors were not invited to take their hereditary parts in the cere- 
mony ; the Duke of Savoy carried the crown, the Marquis of Montferrat, 
the scepter, and the Duke of Urbino, the sword. Charles V. was the last 
Emperor crowned in Italy. 

127. Crossing the Tyrolese Alps into Germany, the Emperor repaired 
to Augsburg, where he had summoned a Diet to meet in May, 1530, for 
the two purposes of settling religious difficulties and concerting measures 
against the Turks. The threatening movements of Solyman compelled 
a more conciliating tone toward the Protestant princes; and thus the 
Moslem hosts became the unconscious allies of the Eeformation. A state- 
ment of the Lutheran doctrines, known as the Augsburg Confession, had 



180 MODERN HISTORY. 

been drawn up by Melancthon, a theologian of great learning, and firm 
devotion to the truth, though of a mild and gentle disposition. It was 
signed by all the Protestant princes and representatives, and has ever 
since been the standard of belief in the Lutheran churches. 

128. In December of the same year, the League of Smalcald was signed 
by the same powers. Its leadqrs were the Elector of Saxony and the 
Landgrave of Hesse ; and it included eventually seven princes, two 
counts, and twenty-four cities. To avoid leaving the government in the 
hands of the imperial vicars during his frequent absences from Germany, 
the Emperor had resolved to have his brother Ferdinand elected king of 
the Romans ; and in spite of the protest of the Elector of Saxony, who 
was one of the vicars, the archduke was actually crowned at Aix-la- 
Chapelle in 1631. The Duke of Bavaria, hereditary rival of the House 
of Austria, allied himself with the Smalcaldic League in opposing the 
power of Ferdinand. The League was further strengthened by the 
alliance of Francis I., who, though himself engaged in burning heretics, 
rejoiced in every sort of opposition to the power of Charles. For the 
same reason he kept up his intimacy with King John (Zapolya) of Hun- 
gary, and even with Solyman, the Turk. The French king declared 
himself the protector of Christians in the Levant, and obtained from the 
Sultan for their use all the churches in Jerusalem, except the principal 
one, which was now a mosque. Henry VIII. of England also favored the 
League, for, though proud of his controversy with Luther, he had his 
own cause of enmity with Charles, which is soon to be described. 

129. The progress of the Turks compelled the emperor to conclude the 
first religious peace at Nuremberg, in 1532. It was confirmed by the Diet 
of Eatisbon, and granted full liberty to preach and publish the doctrines 
of the Augsburg Confession. The same month, John the Steadfast died 
and was succeeded by his son, John Frederic, in the electorate of Saxony. 
In consequence of the peace, Charles was soon attended near Vienna by 
an army of 80,000 men. Solyman advanced into Hungary at the head of 
350,000, and with a dazzling display of Oriental magnificence. Many 
fortresses sent him their keys, and his march was less like an invasion 
than a peaceful progress through his own dominions. At the little for- 
tress of Giins, however, he met an opposition which severely wounded his 
pride. His whole army was detained more than- three weeks by a garrison 
of only 700 men, who repulsed eleven assaults, and at last only permitted 
ten Janizaries to remain an hour in the place, to erect the Turkish stand- 
ard. The operations of Andrew Doria in the Morea, and the defeat of 
his cavalry at the Sommering Pass, further discouraged the Sultan, who 
hastily retreated, leaving only a force of 60,000 men at Essek, to support 
the interests of Zapolya. Peace was made the following year between the 
Empire and the Porte. 



REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 181 

130. Important events had occurred meanwhile in western Europe. 
Pope Clement VII., having causes of offense with the Emperor, courted 
the alliance of the king of France, and negotiated at Marseilles the 
marriage of his niece, Catherine de' Medici, with Henry, Duke of Or- 
leans, the second son of that monarch. By the subsequent death of 
his elder brother, Henry became heir to the French kingdom, and 
Catherine during the reigns of her three sons exerted a powerful and 
most baleful influence upon the fortunes of France. 

131. Henry VIII. of England had married Catherine, youngest 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and the widow of his 
brother Arthur. All the sons born of this marriage had died in infancy, 
and only one daughter remained — the sickly Princess Mary, afterward as 
queen, to bear so melancholy a name in history. According to the 
notions of the age, Henry regarded the death of his children as signs of 
Heaven's displeasure with the marriage, and for several years had been 
petitioning the Pope to annul it. Clement, however, was embarrassed by 
the necessity of conciliating many powers. If he declared for Catherine, 
both France and England were ready to sever their connection with the 
Roman Church ; if he favored Henry, Germany and the Netherlands were 
no less certain to become protestant. The queen of England was aunt of 
the Emperor Charles, who naturally supported her claims and those of 
her daughter. When imperial influence prevailed at the papal court, 
Clement refused the divorce ; when the French king, who was in alliance 
with England, had the ascendency, a different decision was hinted as 
probable. 

132. By the advice of Cranmer, then an obscure priest, Henry sub- 
mitted the question to the universities of Europe. The balance of opin- 
ion was assumed to be in his favor, and, in June, 1533, Cranmer, now 
promoted to be Archbishop of Canterbury, solemnly pronounced the mar- 
riage with Queen Catherine annulled. The king was already married 
to Anne Boleyn, who had imbibed the reformed doctrines in the court of 
the French king's sister, Margaret of Navarre, and was considered by the 
English Protestants as a powerful ally of their cause. The famous parlia- 
ment of 1534 abolished the papal authority in England, forbade the pay- 
ment of "Peter-pence" or other tribute to Rome, and declared the 
king to be the head of the national Church. Though this decisive event 
was immediately brought about by personal and selfish motives, yet the 
reformation in England had a far deeper origin, and had only been has- 
tened by the discussions concerning the king's marriage. The irresolu- 
tion of the Pope shook the faith of many who would gladly have regarded 
him as inspired with unerring wisdom ; and the question was heard : " If 
Pope Clement will not decide when England's welfare is at stake, where 
is his justice? — if he can not, where is his infallibility?" In spite of the 



182 MODERN HISTORY. 

law for the burning of heretics, now in full force, and illustrated by many 
executions during the reign of Henry VIII., the hearts of the common 
people were more and more alienated from the ancient Church. 

133. Pope Clement VII. died in September, 1534. His pontificate had 
been marked by losses and calamities unknown to his predecessors: him- 
self a prisoner, Eome plundered and desecrated, once by a prince of the 
Church and once by the forces of the Emperor; Denmark, Sweden, and 
England severed from their obedience to the Church, whose doctrines 
were also denied by a great part of Germany and Switzerland. Clement 
was succeeded in the papacy by Alexander Farnese, who took the name 
of Paul III. 

134. The Mediterranean coasts were infested at this time by Moham- 
medan pirates, especially by the "flying squadrons" of Barbarossa, who, 
on the death of his brother Horuc, had become king of Algiers. The 
Sultan Solyman appointed this daring freebooter his admiral; from Gib- 
raltar to Messina, along the borders of Spain, Italy, and France, no man 
slept securely ; and on the African coast a multitude of captives were 
waiting to be ransomed, while reduced by their fierce and barbarous mas- 
ters to a most degrading servitude. Barbarossa had recently taken pos- 
session of the kingdom of Tunis, from which he expelled its rightful mon- 
arch, Muley Hassan; and the terror of Europe was only heightened by 
this increase of his power. 

135. Among the most famous and successful enterprises of the reign of 
Charles V. was a crusade against these corsairs. Mustering his forces at 
Cagliari, in Sardinia, the Emperor took command in person, and landed 
on the African coast near the ancient town of Utica. The fortress of 
Goletta, which protects Tunis, was taken by storm ; Barbarossa was routed 
in a pitched battle, and, with the aid of the Christian captives, Tunis 
itself was taken. Muley Hassan was restored upon his engaging to sup- 
press piracy, to protect all Christians in the exercise of their religion, and 
to pay the Emperor a yearly tribute of 12,000 ducats. Charles was pre- 
ceded into Europe by thousands of liberated captives, whom he had 
caused to be clothed and equipped at his expense, and who spread his 
fame with ardent gratitude through their various countries. 

136. The king of France now made a new pretext for war, by advan- 
cing a most unreasonable claim to the duchy of Savoy. The reigning 
duke was his uncle, but was nearly allied both by marriage and interest 
with the Emperor. Early in 1536, the French troops overran the duchy. 
All attempts at negotiation failing, the Emperor declared war, and armies 
were collected in Italy and the Netherlands for a double invasion of 
France. With that reckless cruelty which too often disgraced his policy, 
Francis caused the rich and beautiful region between the Alps and the 
Rhone, as far north as the Durance, to be made utterly waste. Towns, 



PEACE OF TOLEDO. 183 

villages, and mills were destroyed, crops burnt, and wells poisoned. Only- 
three places were left to be defended, and of these the Emperor chose 
to attack Marseilles. But the terrible plan of defense proved effectual; 
hunger and disease among his troops compelled him to raise the siege 
after sixteen days, and to retreat with a loss of 30,000 men. The invasion 
of Picardy was attended by no greater success. 

137. Francis, elated by the discomfiture of his rival, now cherished 
great plans of conquest both in Italy and the Netherlands. He renewed 
his old alliance Avith the Turks, and engaged Barbarossa to land an army 
in the kingdom of Naples, while he himself should enter Lombardy with 
50,000 men. These great preparations, however, came to nothing. The 
queen-regent* of the Netherlands, with her sister, the queen of France, 
arranged a truce, in July, 1537, which was prolonged by the negotiation 
of the sovereigns in person at Nice, 1538, and finally settled into a 
"perpetual peace" by the treaty of Toledo. Francis was 
left in possession of Savoy, Bresse, and half of Piedmont ; 
the rest of Piedmont and the duchy of Milan remained to the Emperor. 
The Duke of Savoy, unjustly deprived of his dominions, had to content 
himself with the little county of Nice. Geneva, long subject, nominally, 
to the dukes of Savoy, but really to its bishops, now became an inde- 
pendent republic. It was ruled twenty-five years by John Calvin, through 
whose influence it became not only the stronghold of the Eeformation in 
all the French-speaking countries, but a focus for all Europe of religious, 
political, and scientific progress. 

Luther opposes the fanaticism of many reformers, the lawlessness of the knights, and 
the disorders of the peasantry. Many castles destroyed; 100,000 peasants put to death. 
League of Torgau unites the Protestant princes against a counter-alliance of the Catholics. 
Protest of the former in the Diet of Spires gives a name to their partj'. Advance of the 
Turks ; Louis of Hungary and Bohemia slain at Mohacz ; Buda taken and plundered. 
Archduke Ferdinand becomes king of Bohemia, and claims Hungary, which is held, how- 
ever, by Zapolya, in alliance with the Turks. 

Florence captured by an imperial army and the Medici restored. Charles receives at 
Bologna the crowns of Italy and the Empire. Augsburg Confession adopted by the Luther- 
ans. Smalcaldic League unites the Protestant powers, and is favored by France and 
England. Archduke Ferdinand crowned King of the Romans. Third invasion of Hun- 
gary by Solyman attended with great pomp, but trifling results. Marriage of Catherine 
de' Medici with Henry of France. Separation of Henry VIII. from Catherine of Aragon 
and his marriage with Anne Boleyn favor the reformation in England. The king's 
supremacy in the Church declared by Parliament. Moorish corsairs ravage the European 
coasts of the Mediterranean. Charles V. takes Tunis and liberates a multitude of captives. 
Francis I. lays waste Provence. Charles besieges Marseilles without success. Peace being 
made, Geneva becomes independent. 



*The Queen-dowager Mary of Hungary, widow of the young king, Louis II., who 
was slain at Mohacz, and sister of the Emperor Charles. She succeeded her aunt, the 
Duchess Margaret, as regent of the Netherlands, in 1530. 



184 MODERN HISTORY. 

Reign op Charles V. 

138. The highest military office in France had remained vacant since 
the treason of Bourbon. It was now filled by the appointment of Mont- 
morency, a life-long companion of the king, whom he had served with 
distinguished merit, both in the field and the cabinet, especially in the 
negotiations for his release from the captivity in Spain. Under his influ- 
ence, Francis I. broke off" his friendship with the king of England and 
his alliances with the Lutherans and Turks, while he cultivated closer 
relations with the Emperor. A scheme was even proposed by the French 
embassador in England for the partition of that kingdom among Charles 
v., Francis I., and James V. of Scotland. This coming to the ears of 
Henry VIII., he resolved to league himself more closely with the confed- 
erates of Smalcald (see § 128) by marrying Anne, sister of the Duke of 
Cleves and of the Electress of Saxony. The duke was one of the great- 
est Protestant princes, having lately become heir to Guelders and Zut- 
phen by the extinction of the family of Egmont, as well as to his father's 
duchy of Cleves and his mother's inheritance of Berg, Jiiliers, and Ea- 
vensberg. His estates lay along the Rhine, from Cologne to the neighbor- 
hood of Utrecht, and from the Werre to the Meuse. The marriage, 
however, having been occasioned by a temporary policy of personal resent- 
ment, was soon annulled by the king himself, and, though Anne continued 
to reside in England, the failure of the alliance led to the downfall of 
the Protestant party at court. 

139. The fleet of Barbarossa was again pursuing its ravages in the 
Levant and conquering nearly all the islands of the Archipelago. Venice 

not only lost these and several places on the mainland, but 

A. D. 1540. •' . ^ ' 

had to pay a ransom which exhausted her resources and left 

her dependent upon the protection of France. The Emperor, though 
master of Mexico and Peru, had great difficulty in meeting the expenses 
of his government, and the Spaniards, ill-content to be taxed for enter- 
prises in which they had no concern, refused to vote supplies. Charles 
revenged himself by ceasing to convene the Cortes. The grandees shut 
themselves up in their palaces and country-seats, where they found conso- 
lation for the loss of political power by maintaining all the ceremony of 
royal courts and exercising sovereignty over thousands of vassals. Ruin- 
ing their fortunes by extravagance, and losing all warlike energy and 
skill in a life of indolence, they ceased to be formidable to their monarch. 

140. The Netherlands protested in their own way against the burdens 
of taxation. Ghent, the Emperor's native city, rose in revolt, and sent 
envoys to the king of France, acknowledging him as its sovereign. Fran- 
cis being now on friendly terms with Charles, betrayed their confidence, 
and even invited the Emperor to pass through France on his way to 



REIGN OF CHARLES V. 185 

punish the rebellion. He was entertained with great magnificence, but 
had no sooner set foot in his own dominions than he received from Francis 
a demand of the investiture of Milan as the price of his safe passage. It 
was refused, except upon conditions which the French king declined to 
accept ; and the Milanese duchy was the same year bestowed upon the 
emperor's son Philip. Charles entered his native city on his birthday, 
1540. All the principal citizens, with bare heads and feet, asked pardon 
on their knees. But no submission could soften the vengeance of the 
sovereign. Twenty magistrates were beheaded ; the ancient abbey of St. 
Bavon and the Bell Eoland, which, from its tower, had so often summoned 
a free people to arms, were destroyed ; and from the fines of the citizens a 
fortress was erected upon its site. All the privileges of Ghent were abol- 
ished. The commercial i^rosperity of the town was transferred to Antwerp ; 
its brave enthusiasm for freedom was inherited by the northern provinces, 
which were yet to wrest their independence from the son of Charles. 

141. The French king, disappointed in his mercenary aims, now dis- 
missed Montmorency and renewed his alliance with the Lutherans and 
the Turks. The former had gained strength by the accession in 1535 of 
Joachim II. as Elector of Brandenburg, and in 1539 of Henry the Pious 
as Duke* of Saxony, in the places of princes who had been bitterly opposed 
to the reformation. The people of these countries were already protestant 
at heart, and the reformed worship now prevailed from the Rhine to the 
Baltic. Conferences between Romish and protestant divines were held at 
Frankfort in 1540, and before the Diet at Ratisbon in 1541, bringing the 
two parties more nearly to agreement than ever before or after, but with- 
out producing peace. 

142. The death of King John Zapolya of Hungary renewed the hostili- 
ties with the Turks. Before the troops voted by the Diet of Ratisbon 
could take the field, Solyman had a third time entered the Hungarian 
capital, where he now established both government and religion upon a 
Mohammedan basis, which continued nearly 150 years. In vain King 
Ferdinand sent embassadors offering to hold Hungary as a tributary of 
the Porte ; Solyman haughtily replied by demanding a yearly tribute for 
the arch-duchy of Austria. The Elector of Brandenburg led a German 
army to the siege of Pesth, but he failed, and town after town fell into 
the hands of the Turks, until, in 1547, the Sultan desiring to turn his arms 
toward Persia, consented to a truce for five years. The government of 
the Turkish conquests was committed to twelve officers appointed by the 
Porte. 



* It should be remembered that there were two branches of the Saxon family ; the elder 
or Ernestine possessing the electoral, and the younger or Albertine, the ducal title. The 
latter had the territories of Meissen and part of Thuringia, including the cities of Dresden 
and Leipzig. Wittenberg was the capital of the electorate. 



186 MODERN HISTORY. 

143. The Emperor Charles, meanwhile, had been overwhelmed with 

disasters in his expedition ae;ainst Algiers. His landing on 

A. D. 1541. ^ . , , n . ■, 

the African coast was accompanied by a tempest of wind 
and rain which spoiled his ammunition, swept away his tents and turned 
his encampment into a swamp. His fleet being wrecked, the provisions 
were destroyed ; a pestilence carried away the greater part of the army ; 
and at last the emperor, accompanied by the shattered remains of his 
splendid armament, arrived in December at the Spanish port of Carta- 
gena. The French king, his late ally, received the news of his calamities 
with unconcealed joy, and immediately sought to draw into his own 
alliance all who had any cause of complaint against the emperor. A 
rebellious party in Naples, the Duke of Cleves and the kings of Denmark 
and Sweden, entered the new league, but Henry VHI., incensed by the 
intrigues of Francis with the Scots, rejected his advances. 

144. In the summer of 1642, five French armies were in the field, three 
of which were to operate against the Netherlands, one in Italy and one 
toward Spain. Luxembourg was unprepared, and many of its fortresses 
were taken by the Duke of Guise with a force under the nominal com- 
mand of the second son of the king ; but the young prince, hearing that 
his brother the Dauphin was planning a j)itched battle in the south, 
disbanded a great part of his army and went to join him, leaving Luxem- 
bourg and Montm6dy to be easily retaken by the Regent of the Nether- 
lands. The siege of Perpignan by the Dauphin failed, 
through the incompetency of the engineers and the vio- 
lence of the autumnal rains. The place was defended by the Duke of 
Alva with the cooperation of Andrew Doria. The king of France ap- 
proached within forty miles, when, perceiving the hopelessness of the 
undertaking, he ordered the siege to be raised. His immense prepara- 
tions — the greatest during his reign — had been dissipated in aimless or 
trivial enterprises, and only a few small places in Picardy and northern 
Italy remained as the fruits of his efforts. 

145. An English army, during the autumn of the same year, devastated 
Scotland, and its victory at Solway Moss hastened the death of the Scot- 
tish king James V. His only daughter was but seven days old, and the 
king of England, in hopes of an alliance which might bring the whole 
island under one crown, recalled his forces and proposed a marriage 
between his son Edward and the infant queen. This union would have 
averted many miseries from both kingdoms ; it was prevented by the 
opposition of Scottish nobles under the influence of France. 

146. The emperor now passed into Germany, to punish the Duke of 
Cleves for his treacherous conduct in the recent wars. Francis left his 
ally to his fate. Charles took Diiren by storm and caused every inhabit- 
ant of the place to be massacred. The duchy of Juliers, whose strongest 



BEIGN OF CHARLES V. 187 

place had been chosen for this fearful example of vengeance, immediately 
submitted to the emperor ; and the duke hastened to throw himself at the 
feet of his offended sovereign. Charles let him remain there without even 
looking at him for a time ; at length he listened to terms which were 
sufficiently humiliating to the duke: Guelders and Zutphen were sur- 
rendered; the alliance of France and Denmark and the exercise of 
protestant worship were renounced, and all the ducal troops were trans- 
ferred to the imperial armies. 

147. The Turkish freebooters, who were the most disgraceful allies of 
the French, were now ravaging the south of Italy. They burned Eeggio, 
destroyed all vineyards and olive-orchards near the coast, carried oflf all 
the people whom they could find, and, appearing at the mouth of the 
Tiber, threatened Rome. The French embassador interfering for the 
protection of the Pope, Barbarossa steered for Marseilles, where he found 
a ready market for the captives whom he had brought away from the 
Calabrian coast. He was enraged, however, to find the French unpre- 
pared for the grand enterprise in which he had been invited to cooperate; 
and to pacify him Francis gave orders for an attack upon Nice. This last 
stronghold of the Duke of Savoy might have fallen but for the opportune 
arrival of Doria's fleet and a Spanish army, which caused the combined 
force of French and Turks to retire. The city of Toulon was given up 
as winter-quarters to the latter, who converted it for the time into a 
Mohammedan town. 

148. The imminent danger arising from the near presence of the Turks 
induced the emperor, at the Diet of Spires, to renew his con- 

^ ' ... A. D. 1544. 

cessions to the protestants, who in turn vied with the other 
members of the Empire in voting supplies for the war. Hostilities in Pied- 
mont went on all winter with great energy ; but as the successes of the 
French and imperial forces were pretty evenly balanced, they need not here 
be related. A large army was assembled in Lorraine by the emperor, who 
received the submission of Luxembourg and of several other towns in that 
province and Champagne. The siege of St. Dizier detained him several 
weeks, but he arrived in due time at Chateau Thierry, within two days' 
march of Paris. The king of England, by previous agreement, invaded 
France at the same time with a powerful army ; took Boulogne by a two 
months' siege, and was marching upon the French capital, when he re- 
ceived the unwelcome news that Charles and Francis had made peace 
at Crespy without the least consultation with himself. 

149. The king of France, having sacrificed all other alliances for that 
of the Turks, was now forced to rid himself of these unmanageable allies 
by the payment of nearly a million of crowns. The corsairs at Toulon 
had behaved as if in an enemy's land, seizing men even in the royal 
galleys for service in their fleet, and making slaves of whomsoever they 



188 MODERN HISTORY. 

could capture in the surrounding country. Barbarossa had sailed in 
April for Constantinople, ruining and wasting the coasts of Italy as he 
went, and his late ally was now at liberty to conclude a treaty in 
which he promised to cooperate with the emperor not only in suppress- 
ing heresy, but in defending Christendom against the Turks. 

150. In pursuance of the former object, Charles ordered certain doctors 

of the University at Louvain to draw up a Confession of Faith, which all 

his subjects in the Netherlands were required to accept under penalty of 

death. As an earnest of his resolution, a Calvinistic preacher, Peter du 

Breuil was burned alive in the market-place of Tournay- 
Feb., 1545. . ^ . '' 

The same views were made apparent in the Diet of Worms, 

which met in March of the same year. The Pope, fearing that his 
dignity might be slighted by the consultation of temporal princes con- 
cerning the religious affairs of Europe, had issued a bull summoning at 
last the long delayed and eagerly demanded Council to meet at Trent in 
March, 1545. So short a time was suffered to elapse between the sum- 
mons and the meeting of the Council, in order that the Italian prelates 
might have exclusive control of its arrangements. So few, however, were 
present at the first session, that it was necessary to adjourn until the fol- 
lowing December, when the Council wag really opened. 

151. The king of France was signalizing his zeal for the faith by such 
a persecution of the Innocent Vaudois as would have disgraced the worst 
of the pagan emperors of Rome. These simple people in their elevated 
Alpine valleys between France and Piedmont had retained, from the 
earliest times, the purity of their Christian faith and worship, unmin- 
gled with the materialistic rites which crept into richer and more lux- 
urious churches. More recently they had hailed the doctrines derived 
by the reformers from the newly opened Bible, as agreeing essentially 
with their own ; and this connection drew upon the obscure and hitherto 
unnoticed heretics an attention which they might otherwise have escaped. 

152. On the first day of the year 1545, the king of France addressed 
a lette^r to the parliament of Provence, requiring the enforcement of its 
decree passed in 1540, but suspended hitherto by the intercession of the 
German protestants. This atrocious law enacted that all fathers of 
families persisting in heresy should be burnt, their wives and children 
made serfs, their property confiscated and their dwellings destroyed. 
The especial object of persecution was a colony of Vaudois settled 
among the mountains north of the Durance — a rugged region which 
their patient industry had converted into a fruitful garden. The Baron 
d'Oppede was the worthy instrument of the work of desolation ; and his 
forces had been trained by the plundering and ravaging campaigns of 
the French in Italy. Bursting into the Vaudois country, they laid waste 
vineyards, orchards, and grain-fields, and massacred the people. The little 



RELIGIOUS WAR IN GERMANY. 189 

town of CaVjrici'es was induced to surrender by a promise that all lives 
should be spared. But no sooner were its inhabitants in the power of 
the conqueror, than they were put to death. Those Avho had fled to the 
higher mountains were hunted like wild beasts. Some of the strongest 
were chained in the royal galleys ; the rest were destroyed. This per- 
secution of the Vaudois sent a thrill of horror through the greater part 
of Europe, but the French clergy, who had demanded it of the king, 
deliberately avowed and sanctioned the atrocity. The flames of perse- 
cution spread throughout France, and persons were publicly burnt at 
Paris, Meaux, Sens, and Issoire. Meaux had received reformed doctrines 
twenty years before, from its good bishop, Brigonnet, and had become a 
chief seat of the French reformation. Among its martyrs was Stephen 
Dolet, a distinguished scholar and author, who was highly, esteemed by 
the literary men of his time. 

153. The prelates and theologians had not long been in session at 
Trent, when it became evident that the wounds of Germany lay too 
deep for them to heal. The emj)eror was vigorously, though as secretly 
as possible, preparing for war — mustering one army in Italy, another in 
Austria, and a third in the Netherlands. The Pope aided him not only 
by contributions of men and money, but by authorizing in Spain the sale 
of monastic property and a tax upon the clergy. The protestant princes 
and cities, though late in discerning the cause of these preparations, acted 
promptly ; and their army, coinmanded by the Elector of Saxony and the 
Landgrave of Hesse, was first in the field. Charles, having first broken 
his coronation-oath by bringing foreign troops into Germany, violated 
the constitution of the Empire by pronouncing its ban — the highest 
penalty of treason — against the leaders of the Smalcaldic forces and 
all their followers. This sentence could only be legally published with 
the consent of the Diet ; it declared the princes to be rebels and outlaws, 
absolved their subjects from allegiance, and confiscated all their posses- 
sions. The confederates replied by a declaration of war, in which they 
renounced all obedience to " Charles of Ghent, pretended Emperor," and 
the army of the city of Strasbourg hastened to occupy the forts of Ehren- 
berg and Kufstein, in order to prevent the papal forces from entering 
Bavaria through the passes of the Tyrol. 

154r. The first summer's campaign was indecisive, but in the autumn 
the execution of a deeply laid plot seemed to throw all advantage on the 
side of the emperor. Duke Maurice of Saxony (see note, j)age 185), though 
a protestant in belief, had withheld himself from the Smalcaldic League, 
and so far from being included in the ban of the Empire, enjoyed the 
secret confidence of Charles. He had been intrusted by his cousin, now 
at the head of the allies, with the defense and administration of the 
Saxon electorate, but, won by the imperial promises and flatteries, he 



190 MODERN HISTORY. 

betrayed his trust, and, aided by King Ferdinand, with an army of 
Hungarians and Bohemians, seized the territory for himself. By this 
unlooked for defection, the protestants saw their cause reduced to the 
verge of ruin. Their common treasury was exhausted ; many of their 
troops deserted for want of pay, and their army was forced to retreat 
from Upper Germany. Most of the towns and princes in that region 
made their submission to the emperor, and bought peace with heavy fines. 

155. In northern Germany the case was different. The elector John 
Frederic advanced with an army into his confiscated dominions, and 
not only dispersed the troops of Maurice, but overran the Saxon duchy, 
the people being so unanimously on his side as against the treason of 
their duke, that the latter dared not levy ah army among them. King 
Ferdinand had no greater success in raising troops among the Bohemi- 
ans, whom he had offended by attempting to change their elective 
monarchy into a hereditary possession for his family. The deposed 
elector, aided by subsidies from both France and England, might, 
apparently, have made himself emperor of the protestant part of 
Germany and, perhaps, king of Bohemia, if his energy in action had 
been equal to his general excellence of character. The situation was 
reversed by the sudden and rapid advance of Charles, who, with a fresh 

army, came upon John Frederic at Muhlberg and crossed 

April, 1547, .; ) j:- o 

the Elbe almost under his eyes, while the elector still 
imagined him many miles away. The resistance was well planned and 
resolute; but the elector was wounded and captured, and his forces put 
to flight. With the capitulation of Wittenberg, his capital, all his elect- 
oral and princely rights were surrendered to the emperor ; his posses- 
sions, except a few towns, were divided between King Ferdinand and 
Duke Maurice. John Frederic remained in captivity at the imperial 
court, while his children became pensioners of their unfaithful kinsman. 
The new elector, Maurice, was solemnly invested with his dignities by 
the emperor himself, while the deposed and captive prince looked on 
the ceremony from the window of his lodgings. 

156. Duke Eric of Brunswick, with an imperial army, was compelled, 
during the spring of 1647, to raise the siege of Bremen, and was totally 
defeated near Drachenburg ; but the news of the Wittenberg capitulation 
paralyzed the arms of the victorious Leaguers, and Lower Germany, 
with the exception of Magdeburg, was soon subdued. In his return to 
the south, the emperor received at Halle the submission of the land- 
grave, Philip of Hesse, who, begging pardon on his knees in the presence 
of the court, engaged to s 'rrender his artillery, demolish all his fortresses 
but one, release the prisoner ^ whom he had taken, and pay a considerable 
fine. By a most unworthy e asion of the terms of the treaty, he was 
even then held as a prisoner ; nd the captivity of two great princes of 



LAST YEARS OF CHARLES V. 191 

the Empire only increased the coinplaints of the more honest part of the 
nation. These events went far, however, to overawe resistance in Bo- 
hemia, where the protestant army was soon dispersed : tlie nobles has- 
tened to join King Ferdinand, and Prague itself, after a short resistance, 
was surrendered. The result of the rebellion was only a firmer establish- 
ment in Bohemia and throughout Germany of the power of the House of 
Austria. 

HECA-I^ITtrXi^TIOIsr. 

Francis I. allies himself with the emperor, Henry VIII. with the Smalcaldic League. 
Venice despoiled by the Turks. Spain deprived of freedom, and her nobles of power. 
Ghent punished for rebellion by the loss of all its privileges. Establishment of the Turks in 
Hungary. Failure of the emperor's attempt upon Algiers occasions a new league against 
him in Europe ; but the great eflForts of the French have little result. English victory at Sol- 
way Moss; death of James V. and accession of the infant Mary as " Queen of Scots." The 
Duke of Cleves severely punished for his part in the league. The Turks, as allies of the 
French, ravage the Mediterranean coast ; set up a slave-market at Marseilles and a mosque 
at Toulon. Invasion of France by imperial and English forces, ended suddenly by the 
peace of Crespy. Persecution in the Netherlands. First meeting of the Council of Trent. 
Proscription and massacre of the Vaudois, and martyrdoms in northern France. Smalcaldic 
war in Germany. Treachery of Maurice of Saxony transfers the electorate to his branch 
of the family. The battle of Muhlberg lost by the rightful elector, and Wittenberg surren- 
dered. John Frederic, and Philip of Hesse, become prisoners of the emperor, who considers 
himself " for the first time lord of Germany." 



Last Years of Charles V. 

157. Henry VIH. of England died in January and Francis I. of France 
in March of 1547. The former was succeeded by his youthful son, Edward 
VI., during whose minority a protestant regency established the English 
Church in nearly the same doctrines and usages which it still maintains. 
Henry II., the young king of France, resembled his father in grace and 
affability of manners and attractiveness of person ; unhappily, also, in the 
recklessness with which he abandoned public affairs to selfish and un- 
worthy favorites. Disregarding his father's dying advice, he recalled the 
constable Montmorency to court, and raised the family of Guise to the 
highest honors. 

158. The. Guises, who surpassed in their talents for intrigue all the 
members of the new court, were a younger branch of the house of Lor- 
raine which owed allegiance only to the Empire. Claude, the first Duke 
of Guise, had married a French princess, and his daughter became the 
wife — soon afterwards the widow — of James V. of Scotland. During 
the long minority and absence of the young queen (see § 145), who was 
educated in France as the aflSanced bride of the Dauphin, Mary of Guise 
was the center of French influence in the Scottish court ; and both in 
her person and that of her daughter, the beautiful but unhappy Mary 



192 MODERN HISTORY. 

Stuart, the Guises may be said to have ruled Scotland. They claimed 
also the rights of the House of Anjou in Provence and the kingdom of 
Naples, being descended from old King Rene, whose daughter Yolande had 
married a duke of Lorraine. 

159. Two sons of Duke Claude of Guise held important places in the 
Council of Henry H. — Francis, Duke d' Aumale, and Charles, Arch- 
bishop of Eheims, afterward better known as Cardinal of Lorraine. At 
the head of the Council were Henry d'Albret, king of Navarre, and his 
son-in-law, Antony of Bourbon, first prince of the royal blood. For a 
time, however, the chief ruler of the court was Diana de Poitiers, soon 
created duchess of Valentinois, who possessed the keys of the public 
treasury by causing one of her confidants to be appointed to high fiscal 
office. All ecclesiastical appointments in the kingdom were in her gift, 
and holders of rich benefices were undoubtedly in some instances removed 
by poison, in oi'der that the proceeds of the sale might be the sooner in 
her hands. The realm which Henry 11. had solemnly sworn to administer 
in the fear of God, was thus left a prey to unchecked robbery. A court 
so occupied gave no uneasiness to the other powers of Europe ; and the 
emperor was able to pursue his dealings with the Pope and the princes, 
unembarrassed as formerly by the intrigues of France. 

160. Paul III., too late alarmed by the growing power of the emperor, 
had withdrawn his troops from Germany, and, by favoring a sedition in 
Genoa, sought to substitute French for imperial influence in that city. 
The death of the chief conspirator, just when his presence would have 
given success to his party, thwarted the plan, and the Dorias remained in 
power. The dissension between the temporal and spiritual sovereigns 
was still more embittered by the murder of the Duke of Parma, a son 
of the Pope, and an Italian tyrant of the most odious type. The em- 
peror, instead of punishing the crime, seemed almost to assume the 
responsibility of it, by occupying Placentia, where it had occurred, 
with his own troops, and refusing to invest the son of the murdered 
duke, who was his own son-in-law, with the duchy of Parma. 

161. The Pope had already ordered the removal of the Council from 
Trent to Bologna, where it might be under his own control. The Spanish 
and Neapolitan prelates, obeying their temporal sovereign, remained at 
Trent; the other thirty-four passed into Italy; and the two Councils, 
instead of restoring peace and unity to Christendom, opened a war of 
words between themselves. The emperor resolved to settle the religious 
differences of Germany by his own authority. Three divines, belonging 
respectively to the old and new Catholic and the Lutheran parties, were 
appointed to draw up a Confession of Faith which should reconcile all 
differences, at least until a more generally acceptable Council could be 
convened. In allusion to its provisional and temporary nature, this 



LAST YEARS OF CHARLES V. 193 

paper was called the "Interim." In aiming to please all parties, it 

naturally contented none, and was attacked with equal violence at 

Magdeburg, at Geneva, and at Eome. It was presented, however, to 
the Diet at Augsburg, not for discussion but acceptance ; 

May 1548. 

and the Elector of Mentz, immediately rising, thanked the 
emperor for his efforts to restore peace to the Church, and declared the 
articles to be fully approved by the Diet. This unauthorized assumption 
was allowed on that occasion to pass unchallenged ; but protests were 
soon entered, both by the actual and the deposed Elector of Saxony, as 
well as by several imperial cities. Magdeburg and Constance were the 
chief centers of opposition. Both were placed under the ban of the 
Empire ; the latter was captured by the army of King Ferdinand, and, in 
defiance of its ancient privileges, annexed to the dominions of the House 
of Austria. Magdeburg sustained a longer resistance, and became the 
stronghold of the protestant faith. 

162. Having, as he hoped, suppressed religious innovations by means 
of the Interim, the emperor proceeded to reform the Catholic party by 
a special edict characterized by great wisdom and moderation. At the 
same Diet, the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands* were incorpor- 
ated with the Empire under the name of the circle of Burgundy. 

The French king was now in Italy stirring up plots against the im- 
perial interests in Parma, Genoa, and Naples ; but he was recalled by a 
revolt excited by his tax-gatherers among the peasantry in Guienne. 
Fifty thousand rebels were in arms. They were easily put down by the 
disciplined troops of Montmorency and the Duke d'Aumale, and the 
vengeance inflicted by the former upon the citizens of Bordeaux was 
too frightful to be recorded. 

163. The Guises, for their own interests, lost no opportunity to promote 
hostilities between England and Scotland, and especially to oppose the 
marriage-treaty which might so happily have united those two nations. The 
Scottish reformers and protestants were naturally in favor of the English 
alliance, while the Catholic party found its support in France. Its leader 
was Cardinal Beaton, a man of savage and bigoted character, whose over- 
bearing insolence at length provoked his assassination. The 150 conspira- 
tors, who had accomplished his death, held the castle of St. Andrews 
against the Queen-mother, Mary of Guise, until the arrival of a French 
fleet and army to her aid. The regent Arran was soon after defeated by 
the English protector Somerset. French forces were constantly engaged 
in these actions, and in 1549 war was openly declared between France 



* The Low Countries belonging to Charles V. either by inheritance or conquest comprised 

the four duchies of Brabant, Limburg, Luxembourg, and Guelders ; the seven counties of 

Artois, Flanders, Hainault, Namur, Zutphen, Holland, and Zealand; the margravate of 

Antwerp ; and the five baronies of Mechlin, Utrecht, Friesland, Overyssel, and Groningen. 

H. M.-13. 



194 MODERN HISTORY. 

and England. The young queen of the Scots, now six years of age, was 
sent into France, where she remained until after her marriage and widow- 
hood. Somerset was soon overthrown by civil dissensions in England, 
and the Earl of Warwick coming into power signed a peace with France. 

164. The French protestants lost, about this time, an invaluable friend 
and protectress in Margaret, Queen of Navarre, who died Dec. 21, 1549. 
The ambition of the Guises, the cruelty of Montmorency, the rapacity 
of all the courtiers, and especially the resentment of Diana of Poitiers, 
whose iniquities had been plainly dealt with by an honest reformer, all 
combined to fan the flames of persecution. Four Lutherans were burnt 
to heighten the festivities attending the coronation of the French queen, 
Catherine de' Medici, and in every province heretics were hunted like 
wild beasts. 

165. Paul III. dying, Nov., 1549, the cardinal Del Monte became pope 
under the name of Julius III. He sought favor with the emperor by 
reopening the Council at Trent; and Charles summoned a new Diet at 
Augsburg to devise means of compelling the protestant party to submit 
to its decrees. As the emperor grew older and his constitutional melan- 
choly settled more heavily over his mind, he became more willingly a 
persecutor. In the Netherlands he had just established the Spanish In- 
quisition ; and his cruel Edict of Brussels denounced the death-penalty 
against all who should buy, sell, or possess any protestant book, meet for 
the study of the Scriptures, or speak against any of the Eomish doc- 
trines. Men thus oflfending were beheaded, women were either burnt or 
buried alive. 

166. By a vote of the Diet of Augsburg, Maurice of Saxony was in- 
trusted with an imperial army for the siege of Magdeburg. But Maurice 
had now gained from the emperor all that his ambition could demand ; 
he was alarmed by the stretch of prerogative which seemed to threaten 
his own princely rights, and, offended by the continued captivity of his 
father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, he resolved to retreat from his irksome 
and disgraceful position and resume his true place at the head of the 
protestant party. It was not easy to win back the confidence he had 
forfeited ; but, while actually conducting the siege of Magdeburg to a 

successful termination, he concluded a treaty with France 

Jan., 1552. , a , 

for combined war against the emperor. Among the articles 

was one engaging the French king to seize the towns of Metz, Toul, 
Verdun, and Cambray, and hold them as imperial vicar — an engage- 
ment under which the government of France, to a very recent date, 
claimed possession of these towns. The treaty was signed at the Castle 
of Chambord, near Blois, by Henry II. and Albert of Brandenburg. 

167. The emperor, not alarmed by rumors of this event, had sent large 
detachments from his army to Italy and Hungary, and had posted him- 



PEACE OF PASS A U. 195 

self with a mere guard at Innsbruck to watch the proceedings at Trent. 
Maurice published a manifesto in which he annovinced his determination 
to maintain the laws and constitution of the Empire, to protect the re- 
formed worship, and to liberate the landgrave Philip. He then advanced 
upon Augsburg, which opened its gates to him without a blow. A small 
force which the emperor had collected upon the borders of the Tyrol 
was put to flight ; the j^ass and castle of Ehrenberg were taken by storm ; 
and Charles himself escaped by a hasty flight from Innsbruck through the 
cold and darkness of a rainy night, being carried in a litter over the snow- 
covered mountain roads into Carinthia. Maurice might probably have 
captured him, but desisted because he "had no cage big enough for such 
a bird." The Council of Trent made a no less sudden retreat, and only 
met again ten years later — in 1562. 

168. The French forces had, meanwhile, seized Toul and gained posses- 
sion, by stratagem, of the free imperial city of Metz. The same plan 
failed at Strasbourg, where the citizens were on their guard. Eeturning 
through Lorraine, Henry II. occupied Verdun ; then, invading Luxem- 
bourg, captured several towns and bestowed their plunder upon his court- 
iers and high officers, to the equal discontent of the soldiers and the 
defrauded inhabitants. 

169. The treaty of Passau ended the first religious war in Germany. 
It was willingly signed by King Ferdinand and the Catholic . ,^,„ 

° ■' ° •' ° Aug., 1552. 

princes, who perceived that the emperor's schemes were not 
less hostile to the civil than to the spiritual rights of the members of the 
Empire. It was now agreed that both parties should enjoy the free exer- 
cise of their religion, and should be equally admitted to the Imperial 
Chamber. The deposed Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse 
were set at liberty. The forces of the Smalcaldic League were either 
disbanded or enlisted in the war against the Turks. 

170. This had broken out afresh in Hungary, through a fancied slight 
received by Martinuzzi, Bishop of Waradin and guardian of the infant 
Zapolya, from the Sultan Solyman. The restless and warlike bishop 
offered to betray the interests of his ward by securing the province of 
Transylvania and the crown of Hungary to King Ferdinand, on condi- 
tion of receiving for himself a cardinal's hat and the governorship of the 
province. The Turkish army, which immediately entered Transylvania, 
was opposed by the combined forces of Martinuzzi and Castaldo, the gen- 
eral of Ferdinand; but the arrogance of the cardinal became unbearable; 
the general accused him of a secret understanding with the Turks, and, 
with the consent of King Ferdinand, procured his assassination. The 
memory of this king is stained with many similar crimes of too little 
importance to our general purpose to be recorded. 

171. The Turks now overran all southern Hungary; Temesvar and the 



196 MODERN HISTORY. 

other fortresses of the Banat fell into their possession, and their customs, 
both of government and worship, remained established there until 1716. 
The approach of the elector Maurice, after the Peace of Passau, com- 
pelled them to retire from Erlau, a little town in the north which had 
withstood three furious assaults, and so held them at bay until succor 
could arrive. 

172. The emperor, with 100,000 men, undertook the recapture of Metz, 
which was defended by the Duke of Guise and all the chivalry of France. 
Albert of Brandenburg, who had hitherto refused to accede to the peace 
of Passau, and had been ravaging western Germany as an ally of the 
French king, now suddenly changed sides, defeated and captured the 
Duke d'Aumale, and made his peace with the emperor. The siege of 
Metz, though conducted with grim determination, made no progress, 
owing to the diseases and hardships incident to the severity of the 
winter, and the skill of the defense. The Spanish and Italian troops 
suifered most of all from the cold and from the heavy rains which made 
their camp uninhabitable. At length, in January, 1563, Charles, with 
tears of mortification, abandoned the enterprise. Metz became wholly 
French ; Lutheran books were burnt and the reformed worship suppressed. 

173. All this time the Turkish corsair Draghut was ravaging the 
Mediterranean coasts. From every cliflF and castle along the shores of 
Italy an anxious lookout was kept for the sails of this marauder, and 
columns of smoke too frequently signaled his approach to the terrified 
inhabitants of the villages. Not only were richly laden merchantmen 
captured upon the sea, but the pirates often penetrated inland, carrying 
into slavery all the people whom they could seize. The island of Corsica, 
then belonging to Genoa, was attacked and several places taken ; but here 
the Turks quarreled with their Christian allies, the French, and seized not 
only all the Corsicans who were fit to row in their galleys, but several 
French nobles, whom they detained for ransom, 

174. In Germany the restless temper of Albert of Brandenburg involved 
him in a war with a new league of princes. In the long and obstinate 
battle of Sievershausen, victory at length decided for the league, but its 
general, the elector Maurice, received a mortal wound. He died two days 
later, in the thirty-second year of his age. His brother Augustus suc- 
ceeded to the electorate, which, down to the dissolution of the Empire in 
1806, and subsequently as the kingdom of Saxony, has remained in the 
Albertine branch of the family. Prince Albert of Brandenburg was again 
defeated near Brunswick, and spent the remaining years of his life as a 
dependent upon the court of France, or upon his brother-in-law, the Duke 
of Baden. Germany enjoyed a long interval of respose, during which it 
had little part in the general affairs of Europe. 

175. On the side of the Netherlands, Terouenne was taken by an 



PHILIP AND MARY IN ENGLAND. 197 

imperial army, and so 'completely destroyed that it ceased to be a town. 
Hesdin was also taken, and it was during its siege that 
Emmanuel Philibert, eldest son of the exiled Duke of 
Savoy, displayed those surprising talents which regained for him in due 
time his father's dominions. The duke died a few months later at Ver- 
celli, which was seized and plundered by the French almost immediately 
upon his decease, 

176. During the same summer, the young king, Edward VI., died in 
England, and his sister Mary — daughter of the deposed Queen Catha- 
rine, and a bitter enemy of the party in church and state which had 
dethroned her mother — came to the throne. The ambitious scheme of 
the Duke of Northumberland, to obtain the crown for his daughter-in- 
law. Lady Jane Grey, a grandniece of Henry VIII., led to her destruc- 
tion and his own. Mary took immediate steps to abdicate her supremacy 
in the Church, and submit her kingdom again to the control of the Pope. 
The latter wept tears of joy on the news of her accession, and dispatched 
Cardinal de la Pole — a member of the English House of York, and, 
therefore, a near relative of the queen — to complete the religious revo- 
lution. 

177. The emperor, too, had his eyes upon England, and, with a view 
to extend his power in that direction, soon secured the marriage of 
Mary with his son Philip, whom he invested with the kingdom of Naples, 
that his rank might equal that of his bride. The marriage took place 
July 25, 1554. So unpopular was it in England that three insurrections 
broke out in different parts of the country, though Philip made liberal 
use of Spanish gold in attaching nobles and people to his interests. 

178. The queen and her husband were perfectly agreed in the desire 
to extirpate the reformed faith and worship in England. Four months 
after the marriage an act of Parliament restored the nation to its obedi- 
ence to Eome. The embassadors who were sent to take the oath of 
allegiance to Julius III., heard, on their way, of the death both of that 
pontiff and of his successor, Marcellus II., and finally fulfilled their 
mission to Paul IV. 

John Peter Caraffa, who assumed this name, had been distinguished 
hitherto for piety, learning, and a simple and blameless life. He was a 
member of the Oratory of Divine Love, instituted during the reign of 
Leo X., and was one of the founders of the Theatins. At the age of 
seventy-nine he suddenly took on a new character, that of worldly ambi- 
tion and overbearing tyranny. He appeared in public only in magnifi- 
cent array of velvet and gold, and his daily life in the palace was ordered 
with princely pomp and ceremony. His ruling passion was hatred of 
the Emperor Charles, to whose jealousy of the popes he chose to ascribe 
the alienation of the Germans from the ancient Church. Paul, accord- 



198 MODERN HISTORY. 

ingly hastened to make a close alliance with France, and to magnify 
all his causes of disagreement with the emperor. 

179. Charles was not long, however, to stand in the way of the papal 
schemes. For years the desire had grown upon him to throw off the 
burden of public affairs. His health had failed ; the high hopes with 
which he had begun his reign were further than ever from their fulfill- 
ment ; the Turks held the greater part of Hungary, and his heretical 
subjects in Germany, so far from being reduced to submission, had first 
put him to a disgraceful flight and then dictated their own terms of 
peace. The recent death of Queen Joanna, whom the Spaniards had 
always persisted in regarding as their sovereign, rendered it possible for 
Charles to dispose of the crowns of Castile and Aragon. In hours of 
prayer he fancied that he heard his mother's voice calling him away; 
and he resolved to spend the remainder of his days in retirement. 

180. In pursuance of this design, he called Philip from England and 
first invested him at Brussels with the Grand Mastership of the Order of 
the Golden Fleece. Then, in the presence of all the estates of the Neth- 
erlands, the emperor conferred upon his son the sovereignty 

Oct. ^O, loot). ^ ^ n 1 * 

of the seventeen provinces; reviewed the events of his own 
reign, and begged the assembly to pardon all the errors which he might 
have committed ; charged Philip to defend the Catholic faith, to do justice 
and to love his people. Queen Mary of Hungary, at the same time, laid 
down the regency which she had held twenty-five years, and the new sov- 
ereign of the Netherlands appointed the Duke of Savoy to succeed her. 

181. A few weeks later all the Spanish nobles then in the Low Coun- 
tries were assembled in the same hall to witness the abdication of the 
crown of Spain and its dominions in Asia, Africa, and America. The 
resignation of the imperial crown in favor of King Ferdinand, though 
addressed to the electors, princes, and estates of Germany in the autumn 
of 1556, was not accepted until the Diet of Frankfort in 1558; but the 
emperor sailed from Flushing immediately after he had committed that 
document to his trusted friends, the Prince of Orange and Chancellor 
Seld, and, accompanied by his two sisters, the dowager queens of Hun- 
gary and France, proceeded to Spain. Yuste, in Estremadura, was his 
chosen retreat, where for his accommodation apartments had been added 
to a monastery of the order of St. Jerome. Here it was his delight to 
join in the musical services of the monks, or in fine weather to cultivate 
his garden and orchard with his own hands. He spent many hours with 
the Italian mechanician, Torriano, in making clocks and watches or other 
delicate machinery. Still he followed with eager interest the movements 
of public affairs, and by his counsels constantly aided his daughter, who, 
during her brother's absence, was regent of Spain. 

182. He was visited by two young princes who were destined to widely 



DEATH OF CHARLES V. 199 

different parts in the great drama of European affairs : his own son, John 
of Austria, and the unfortunate Carlos, son of Philip and heir of Spain 
and the Netherlands. Two years after his retirement, the ex-emperor 
felt his end approaching, and was seized with a fancy for celebrating 
his own funeral. Clothed as a monk, he joined in the mournful chants 
of the brotherhood around an empty coffin which was placed in the 
convent chapel. Within a month the solemn farce was turned into 
reality. On the 21st of September, 1558, the great sovereign expired, 
worn out more by toils of state than by years. 

183. The reign of Charles V. comprised one of the most momentous 
periods in the world's history. Eeligious beliefs and principles, especially 
in northern and central Europe, had undergone a remarkable transfor- 
mation ; but, beneath the outward and visible changes already described, a 
counter-revolution had begun, which not only arrested the progress of 
the reformation, but apparently neutralized its results in Austria, Hun- 
gary, Bohemia, Italy, and Spain ; in a word, in all the countries subject 
to either branch of the House of Hapsburg. In part this was due to 
the strong moral reaction felt almost equally within and without the 
Eoman Church against the old-time venality and corruption of the 
clergy. A number of virtuous prelates, among whom the greatest and 
best was Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, restored the respecta- 
bility of the Church; and for more than three hundred years no pope 
has desecrated his office by the flagrant iniquities of an Alexander VI., 
or the refined voluptuousness of a Leo X. The amendments desired by 
Wlcliflfe, Huss, and the later reformers being thus apparently accom- 
plished, the need for separation from the ancient communion became 
less strongly felt. 

184. But the principal agency in the restoration of papal power was 
the Society of Jesuits, whose active and peculiar part in European affairs 
throughout this and the following period entitles it to a more detailed 
account. Its founder was Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish gentleman, who 
was wounded during the siege of Pampeluna in 1521. The serious reflec- 
tions excited in him by a tedious convalescence formed themselves into 
a scheme which would appear as visionary as the wildest dreams of 
romance, had not its main features been realized through the consummate 
ability of the followers of Loyola and its fitness for the emergency at 
which it was presented to the world. 

185. So ignorant was the founder of this great and learned society, 
that he had to begin his elementary education at the age of thirty- 
three; but, while pursuing his studies at Paris, he made disciples of six 
of his fellow-students, who bound themselves by a solemn 

' -^ A. D. 1540. 

oath to attempt the conversion of the Turks. The society 

was formally recognized and established by Paul III., with a constitution 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

diflfering in several important respects from those of the other religious 
orders. Instead of wasting themselves in austerities, the Jesuits were 
encouraged to cultivate all their talents by the liberal pursuits of art, 
science, and general literature. Thus becoming the most accomplished 
instructors of youth, they acquired a controlling influence over the princes 
and leading minds in Europe at the most impressible period of life, and 
this influence is clearly to be discerned in the later policy of the House 
of Austria. 

186. The General of the Order had unlimited authority in assigning to 
every member a sphere of duty adapted to his character and ability. 
While the superior talents of some found exercise in the subtle diplomacy 
of -European courts, the pious zeal of others was employed in the most 
toilsome and self-denying missions among the forests of America, or the 
crowded cities of China and Japan. Jesuits were pioneers in the explora- 
tion of the great lakes of our northern frontier. In Paraguay they even 
obtained the civil government of the country, where they introduced 
agriculture, building, and the arts of social life, and taught the natives to 
exclude all other foreign influences. 

HE c.A.i=ia?Tjij-A.mo2sr. 

Death of the two chief rivals of Charles V.; accession of Edward VI. in England and of 
Henry II. in France. Ascendency of the Guises in France and Scotland. Dissensions be 
tween the emperor and the Pope ; removal of the Council from Trent to Bologna ; publica- 
tion of the Interim in Germany. Annexation of the Low Countries to the Empire. Violent 
opposition to religious reform in Scotland, France, and the Netherlands. Maurice of Saxony 
abandons the serAace, and nearly captures the person of the emperor. First religious war 
ended by Peace of Passau. Conquest of southern Hungary by the Turks. Failure of 
Charles in the siege of Metz. Death of Maurice at Sievershausen. Accession of Mary in 
England ; her marriage with Philip of Spain, and submission of her kingdom to the Pope. 
Abdication, retirement, and death of Charles V. Counter-reformation in Europe and rise 
of the Jesuits. 



Affaies of France and Spain. 

187. The accession of the Emperor Ferdinand I. was welcomed by the 
German princes and recognized by every European sovereign except the 
Pope. Paul IV. declared that as he alone had the power to crown and 
depose emperors, so he only could sanction their abdication ; and ordered 
Ferdinand to resign his scepter, do penance for his presumption, and sub- 
missively await the pleasure of St. Peter's successor. These pretensions, 
which had been heard without surprise, though not without resistance, 
from the lips of Hildebrand or Innocent III., only excited ridicule in the 
greater part of Christendom, and the emperors thenceforth dispensed with 
the ceremony of a papal coronation. 

188. In pursuance of his unrelenting hostility toward Charles and his 



AFFAIBS OF FRANCE AND SPAIN. 201 

son, Paul persuaded the French king to break his solemn engagements 
with the former in the truce of Vaucelles, 1556. He himself imprisoned 
the Spanish embassador and even laid- Spain under an interdict. This 
excessive severity was deeply felt by Philip II., whose religious scruples 
were more intense than those of Paul. The latter was even making an 
alliance with the Turks, while Philip was wearying all his theologians 
for arguments to justify him in resisting the Pope. At length the Duke 
of Alva set his army in motion, and, overrunning the Campagna, appeared 
-before the gates of Eome. Eeverence forbade him to enter that holy city 
in arms ; but no scruple of humanity prevented his putting to the sword 
the innocent inhabitants of the captured villages. 

189. The following winter the Duke of Guise entered Italy with a 
numerous French army. Lombardy and Tuscany might easily have been 
conquered for France, but his own interests drew him to Eome, where he 
persuaded Paul to create ten new cardinals, in order to improve the pros- 
pects of the Cardinal of Lorraine. The movements of the French and 
Spanish armies resembled a stately minuet rather than actual war. They 
advanced and retreated, marched and countermarched, to the infinite dis- 
comfort of the poor people whose fields were wasted and whose homes 
desecrated by the brutal soldiery, but with no gain to either sovereign. 
At length Guise was recalled into France to meet a more pressing danger 
on the side of the Netherlands ; and the Pope dismissed him with the 
following benediction: "Begone, then ! you have done little for your king, 
less for the Church — nothing for your own honor! " 

Peace was now necessary to the Pope; and Philip was glad to desist 
from what seemed to him an impious warfare. The Duke of Alva, in his 
own name and that of his sovereign, did penance and received absolution 
for the crime of invading the papal states. The territories belonging to 
Florence and Siena were united to form the grand-duchy of Tuscany, 
which was ultimately conferred upon Cosmo de' Medici, and continued in 
his family until 1737, when his last descendant expired. 

190. In the Netherlands, Philip had mustered an army of 50,000 men, 
among whom were 10,000 English sent by Queen Mary against the resist- 
ance of the Parliament and the murmurs of the nation. With these 
forces, the Duke of Savoy inflicted a severe defeat upon the French near 
St. Quentin, and almost annihilated their army. Paris was only saved 
from capture by the obstinacy of Philip himself, who, joining the Duke 
of Savoy, forbade him to move farther until the town of St. Quentin and 
some insignificant places in the neighborhood had been taken. The 
French admiral Coligny, with his little garrison, held out bravely three 
weeks, and though the town was ultimately taken, as well as Ham, 
Noyon, and Chauni, the tide of success had meanwhile turned. The 
English, never cordial, insisted on going home, and the Germans muti- 



202 MODERN HISTORY. 

nied for want of pay. While the ex-emperor, in his retreat, was calcula- 
ting that his son must be in Paris, Philip had in fact retired to Brussels, 
disbanded part of his army and sent the rest into winter-quarters. 

191. At this crisis the Duke of Guise returned from Italy and was 
invested by the French king with extraordinary powers. After a feigned 
movement toward Luxembourg, he suddenly appeared with his whole 
army before Calais. This last stronghold of the English in France was 
negligently guarded, as the surrounding marshes, always overflowed in 
winter, were believed to constitute an effectual defense. Its two forts 
were taken in the first day's attack, and after three bombardments, the 
town itself was carried by assault. Guines was taken two weeks later, 
and the English, after possession since the time of Edward III., more 
than two hundred years, were driven from their foothold on the conti- 
nent. The discontent universally felt in England with the needless war 
was heightened into indignation by this unexpected loss ; and the poor 
queen's death was hastened by her remorse and disappointment. 

192. During the captivity of Montmorency, who had been taken at 
St. Quentin, the Guises ruled France. The duke was lieutenant-general, 
the Cardinal of Lorraine was minister of the interior and of finance, a 
third brother commanded the fleet, and a fourth the army in Piedmont. 
Their power was increased by the marriage of their niece, the young 
queen of Scotland, with the dauphin Francis in April, 1558. The con- 
stable was now permitted to open negotiations with his captors. Two 

treaties were signed at Cateau Cambresis, one between 

April, 1559. ^ ' 

France and Spain, the other between France, England, and 
Scotland. Queen Mary of England had died during the conferences, and 
Philip engaged to marry Elizabeth, eldest daughter of the King of 
France ; while the Duke of Savoy, reinstated in his paternal dominions, 
espoused Margaret, sister of the same king. Most of the conquests made 
by either French or Spaniards were restored. The bishoprics of Metz, 
Toul, and Verdun — each, in fact, a principality — remained to the 
French, the emperor Ferdinand being too weak to reclaim them. 

193. The treaty of Cateau Cambresis is important as making a new 
division of the powers of Europe. National jealousies were forgotten in 
religious enmity. The kings of France and Spain ended their long con- 
test in order that both might be free to destroy heresy in their respective 
dominions. England, under the firm and prudent rule of Elizabeth — or 
rather, perhaps, of her great ministers — assumed her place as the head of 
the Protestant states and the protectress of religious freedom in all the 
nations of Europe. Spain became equally the champion of papal claims, 
and in every nation the ruler who wished to coerce the consciences of his 
people, looked to Philip for aid. The invincible infantry and tlie reputed 
wealth of Sjiain made her unquestionably the greatest power in Europe at 



AFFAIRS OF FRANCE AND SPAIN. 203 

this period, though unwise and unjust restrictions upon commerce had 
already cast a blight upon her prosperity, and her decline, though yet un- 
suspected, was begun. 

194. The Reformed Church of France had organized itself at Paris 
during the month following the treaty of Cateau Cambresis. Its doctrines 
were derived from Calvin, whose rescripts, dated at Geneva, were received 
throughout protestant France with as much reverence as those of the Pope 
himself commanded from the adherents of the ancient Church. His dis- 
ciples were numerous among the more intelligent classes, and included 
even bishops, clergy, and members of the monastic orders. The parlia- 
ment of Paris had refused to register an edict for the establishment of the 
Inquisition in France ; but proceedings in matters of faith were intrusted 
to two divisions or committees of the parliament itself, one of which was 
called the Burning Chamber, from the multitude of victims whom it had 
consigned to the flames. Its rigors were condemned by the parliament of 
1559, but Henry II. personally interfered in the discussion, and ordered 
the arrest and imprisonment of seven members who advocated a more 
merciful policy. To the remonstrances of the reformed synod, he replied 
that he would witness with his own eyes the burning of one of these 
prisoners. 

195. He was mistaken, for one month after his visit to the parliament, 
he died by accident in the prime of his life. The marriages of the two 
princesses were celebrated with great festivities and rejoicings; and among 
the ceremonies was a grand tournament held in the space between the 
royal hotel and the tower of the Bastile, where the members of parlia- 
ment were confined. The king of France challenged the captain of his 
guard, a Scottish nobleman, to a tilt. In vain the queen protested, and 
Montgomery tried to excuse himself from the encounter. They met, and 
both lances were shivered ; but that of the Scot entered the king's eye 
between the bars of his helmet. Henry sank into the arms of his son, 
and expired amid the alarm and confusion of the court. 

196. The Guises for a year ruled both France and Scotland, and in both 
kingdoms their violent adherence to the policy of Rome compelled those of 
the reformed faith to organize themselves more closely in defense of their 
rights. The league of reformers in Scotland was called the Congrega- 
tion. In France the name of Huguenots was now first applied. The young 
king, Francis II., was but sixteen years of age, of feeble health, and slight 
mental endowments. Antony of Bourbon, King of Navarre, and first 
prince of the blood-royal of France, was equally destitute of character; 
his younger brother, the Prince of Conde, was regarded as the head of 
the protestant party, but he had purposely been sent on an embassy to 
Brussels. Even the queen-mother could not yet assume the power which 
she afterward wielded. 



204 MODERN HISTORY. 

197. The kingdom was divided no less by political than religious diflFer- 
ences. On the side of the Huguenots were the old feudal nobility of 
France and the highest princes of the royal blood. Opposed to them were 
the Guises, still regarded as foreigners by most of the nation, the queen- 
mother, an Italian, and the strong influence of the Pope and of Philip of 
Spain. The national party, therefore, favored reform or at least general 
toleration in matters of faith ; and resented the persecuting policy of their 
opponents, not only for its inhumanity, but as the impertinent interfer- 
ence of foreigners. An assembling of the States-General was urgently 
demanded ; the government refused, and the Huguenots retaliated by 
the "conspiracy of Amboise," whose main objects were to get possession 
of the young king, to make Antony of Bourbon regent, to try the Guises 
for their mal-administration, and to summon the States. This plot was 
betrayed, and its only effect was to strengthen the opposite party. 

198. Paul IV., before his death, gave the world a new surprise by 
suddenly entering on plans of reform. He dismissed his nephews, whose 
robberies, murders, and midnight riots had been the scandal of his court ; 
introduced order and economy into his finances ; and, to guard against 
injustice in his ministers, caused a chest to be put in a public place, with 
an opening into which every man might cast his petitions or complaints, 
the Pope himself having the only key. His reforms, however, were almost 
harder to bear than his previous extravagance ; for his zeal took the direc- 
tion of persecution, and his last days were spent in listening to the tales 
of the basest informers, and ordering arrests. He died in August, 1559, 
and the people instantly broke open the prisons and released his captives. 
His statue was thrown down, and its head, wearing the triple crown, was 
cast into the Tiber. 

199. A different character was elevated to the papacy in Gian Angelo 
Medecino, who took the name of Pius IV. He Avas an active old man, of 
affable manners and amiable temper, himself no persecutor, but allowing 
the inquisitors to proceed in their dreadful work unmolested. His only 
near relative, his nephew, Charles Borromeo, was a clear and striking con- 
trast to the nephews of other popes who have made nepotis^n notorious. 
Promoted to the see of Milan, he distinguished himself by the self-denying 
purity of his life, his toilsome and frequent visits to the humblest and re- 
motest mountain recesses of his diocese, and his ministrations to the poor 
during a terrible visitation of the plague. Pius IV. differed from his 
predecessor in being a friend to the House of Austria ; he therefore rec- 
ognized the imperial title of Ferdinand I., and consented to the reassem- 
bling of the Council at Trent in 1562. 

200. Philip II., meanwhile, had been recalled into Spain by the progress 
of the Keformation in that country. Bibles in the Castilian language were 
commonly possessed by the middle and higher classes, and the constant 



AFFAIRS OF FRANCE AND SPAIN. 205 

Intercourse with Germany during the reign of Charles V. had afforded 
free entrance to the Lutheran doctrines. The rigorous edicts of Philip 
were only too effective in suppressing the spirit of inquiry. The fires of 
the Inquisition, formerly lit only for Jews and Moors, were now kept blaz- 
ing for loyal and blameless Spaniards. With the last vestiges of free 
thought, the prosperity of Spain vanished. More printing-presses existed 
in that kingdom in 1650 than in 1850 ; a fact which can surely be paral- 
leled by no other country in Europe. 

201. The dominion of the Guises in Scotland was overthrown in the 
summer of 1560, by the surrender of Leith to a combined army of Scots 
and English, after a long and severe siege, during which the queen-regent 
had died. The French, in fulfillment of their treaty, evacuated Scotland, 
and Mary Stuart and her husband were compelled to drop the arms and 
title which they had hitherto assumed as sovereigns of England. Six 
months later the supremacy of the Guises in France was shaken by the 
death of Francis II., just as their deeply laid plot for 
destroying the Bourbon princes approached its fulfillment. 
Catherine de' Medici, now ruling in the name of her second son, Charles 
IX., spared the lives of the Bourbons, that by playing off" one party against 
the other she might maintain her own ascendency. 

202. The States-General met Dec. 13 ; but, startled by the enormity of 
the public debt, declared that they could do nothing, and were dissolved 
in January, 1561. The Edict of Orleans the same day granted most of 
the reforms which had been demanded ; and, for a while, the queen, 
offended by the overbearing conduct of the Guises, courted the favor of 
the Huguenots. The constable Montmorency, always a friend of Spain, 
and a firm adherent of the old Church, now joined the Duke of Guise 
and the marshal St. Andre in what was called the Triumvirate, for the 
suppression of heresy. But the present drift of affairs was against them, 
and they retired from the court. The States-General met again in Aug., 
1561, after a new election in which the reformed party was victorious. 
They confirmed the disposition already made of the government during 
the king's minority, but insisted that no cardinal should be admitted to 
the Council of Eegency, because he was subject to a foreign sovereign, 
the Pope; no bishop, because the law required him to reside in his 
diocese ; and no foreigner, which term was held to include the whole 
family of Lorraine. 

203. An important conference of divines took place at Poissy, Sept., 
1561, in the presence of the king, the queen-mother, the king and queen 
of Navarre, and many prelates and theologians. Theodore Beza of Geneva 
made so favorable an impression upon the court by his eloquence, fear- 
lessness, and noble bearing, that he was requested by Queen Catherine 
to remain in France, in the hope that his presence might contribute to 



206 MODERN HISTOBY. 

peace and a better understanding between the parties. The following 
January an Edict of Toleration, prepared "by the Presidents 
and Councilors of the several parliaments of France, offi- 
cially recognized the Reformed Church and permitted the Huguenots to 
meet unarmed by daylight for worship in the suburbs of towns, though 
not within the walls. 

204. The Triumvirate resolved to oppose the edict by force; and 
Philip of Spain wrote his mother-in-law that she must cleanse her king- 
dom with fire and sword, or the pestilence of heresy would overspread 
Spain and the Netherlands. The weak-minded King of Navarre was 
drawn over to the same side by promises of the island of Sardinia or of 
a marriage with the widowed queen of Scotland. Hostilities were begun 
by an attack of the Duke of Guise's retainers upon a congregation of 
Huguenots who were assembled on a Sunday morning for worship in a 
barn. A frightful massacre ensued, which was the signal for similar 
scenes all over France. Beza hastened to the court to remonstrate. The 
king of Navarre was present and threw all the blame upon the Huguenots. 
The reformer replied in memorable words : " I admit, Sire, that it is the 
part of God's Church, in whose name I speak, to endure rather than 
inflict blows; but may it please you to remember that it is an anvil 
which has worn out many a hammer." 

205. Both parties sought foreign aid in the war which both foresaw ; 
but while the Prince of Cond^ and the Huguenots wore the colors of 
the king and declared their purpose to deliver him from captivity, the 
Triumvirate and their followers assumed the red scarf of Spain. Philip 
offered 36,000 men, but the Catholic leaders, alarmed by the scandal 
which such an invasion would bring upon their cause, besought money 
instead. The Duke of Savoy led his own troops, and the Pope contrib- 
uted 100,000 crowns. Elizabeth of England sent an equal sum of money 
to hire German mercenaries for the Huguenots, and added 6,000 of her 
own subjects to their armies. Havre was given up to her officers as 
security for the restitution of Calais. 

206. Many of the chief towns in France declared for the Huguenots. 
Orleans became their capital and was blockaded by the other party. The 
King of Navarre received a mortal wound during the siege of Rouen ; in 
a battle near Dreux — the first of any magnitude in these unhappy wars 
— the leaders on either side, Conde and Montmorency, were taken pris- 
oners. Coligny became leader of the Huguenots, and the Duke of Guise 
was alone at the bead of the Catholic party. The latter even dreamed 
of succeeding to the throne of France, but his ambitious schemes were 
ended by assassination, Feb., 1563. The queen-mother was the chief 
gainer by his death, for her real reign now began. Peace was made 
with the Huguenots, and the Edict of Amboise secured freedom of wor- 



PEACE OF ST. GERMAINS. 207 

ship to nobles and great vassals of the crown, with their retainers and 
subjects — a signal illustration of the aristocratic character of the reforma- 
tion in France. 

207. The Council of Trent held its last session Dec. 4, 1563. Instead 
of healing the schism in the Christian world, it had excluded nearly- 
half the body of believers from the communion of the Church ; but, by 
the reformatory measures adopted during its later sittings, it gave new 
vigor to that venerable body, and apparently set a bound to the protestant 
movement in Europe. A few months after its close the 

emperor Ferdinand I. died. His son, Maximilian II., had ^^^^' '^'^^^' 

already been crowned King of the Komans, as well as of Hungary and 
Bohemia. He succeeded peaceably to the imperial crown, and his justice 
and liberality long delayed the wars of religion which were destined in 
the next century to bathe Germany in blood. 

208. The next year Pope Pius IV. also died and was succeeded by the 
Grand Inquisitor Ghislieri, who took the name of Pius V. His austere 
piety and unyielding will well qualified him to continue the reformation of 
the Church. Certain of his own rectitude, he was equally sure of the un- 
pardonable wickedness of all who differed from him. New prisons were built 
to contain the multitudes of his victims, and blood flowed, or the smoke 
of his executions ascended, every day. He sent money and troops into 
France, with orders for the instant death of all heretics who could be taken. 

209. The details of the civil and religious ^vars in France can not be 
fully recorded here. The queen-mother, personally indifferent to all re- 
ligion, courted either party which for the moment seemed best adapted 
to serve her ends. In a battle near Paris, Nov., 1567, the veteran consta- 
ble Montmorency was killed, though the Huguenots were defeated. By 
the battle of Jarnac, March, 1569, the Huguenots lost a hundred nobles, 
among whom must be reckoned the Prince of Conde. His son Henry, 
then very young, became afterward one of the most illustrious leaders 
in France. Henry of Navarre, his cousin, though but fifteen years of 
age, was placed at the head of the reformed party, while Coligny, his 
instructor in war, was in command of their armies. 

210. A more decisive battle was fought at Moncontour, Oct. 3, 1569 ; 
the Huguenots suffered a terrible reverse, with the loss of 12,000 men. 
But the interests of Catherine now required peace, for she hoped to marry 
her third and favorite son, Henry, Duke of Anjou, to the queen of Eng- 
land. The masterly generalship of Coligny also threatened the capital ; 
and in these circumstances the treaty of St. Germains was signed, Aug. 8, 
1570. The Huguenots were guaranteed the free and public exercise of 
their religion, with the restoration of all their goods and offices ; and as 
security for the execution of this treaty, four cities — La Rochelle, Mon- 
tauban, Cognac, and La Charite — were assigned to them for two years. 



208 MODERN HISTORY. 



Paul IV. opposes the accession of Ferdinand I., and makes war upon Philip of Spain. 
Alva ravages the Campagna and carries on a semblance of hostilities with the French 
forces of the Duke of Guise. Spaniards victorious at St. Quentin, but the English lose 
Calais. Peace of Gateau Gambr6sis recombines the powers of Europe according to their 
religious affinities. England becomes the head of protestant, Spain of Gatholic powers. 
Organization of Reformed Ghurch of Fr&nce. Attempt of Henry II. to suppress discus- 
sion in the parliament is shortly followed by his death. Ascendency of the Guises in 
France and Scotland ended only by the death of King Francis II. and of Mary of Guise. 
Foreign influences in France arrayed against the national or reform party. Paul IV. under- 
takes persecutions and reforms. Pius IV recognizes Ferdinand I. and reassembles the Coun- 
cil at Trent. Philip II. crushes the reformation in Spain. Tolerant Edict of Orleans op- 
posed by the French " Triumvirate." Reformed party predominant for a time in France. 
War begun ; the Huguenots aided by England and protestant Germany, the Triumvirate by 
Spain and the Pope. Death of Antony of Bourbon, the Duke of Guise, Montmorency, and 
the Prince of Cond6. Henry of Navarre becomes leader of the Huguenots. Close of the 
Council of Trent. Accession of Emperor Maximilian II. and Pope Pius V., the former a 
peace-maker, the latter a persecutor. Defeat of the Huguenots at Moncontour followed by 
Peace of St. Germains. 



Wars of Religion. 

211. King Philip of Spain had, meanwhile, been carrying on a barba- 
rous crusade against the Moriscoes, or nominally Christian Moors of the 
Alpujarras. By his edict of 1566, these people were forbidden the use of 
their native language, their Moorish names, or any of their most innocent 
national customs; and all their children between the ages of three and 
fifteen were ordered to be sent to Spanish schools. After a year of secret 
preparation, the people flew to arms, murdered the Christian inhabitants 

of that region with every circumstance of barbarity, besought 
aid from the Sultan Selim and their brethren in Africa; 
and chose for their sovereign a descendant of the Ommyad caliphs of 
Cordova. The war raged three years, with all the violence of vengeance 
on one side and desperation on the other. The fugitive people were 
hunted like wild beasts among their mountains, but at length their 
spirit was broken by a series of inhuman massacres, and in 1571 the last 
symptoms of revolt were extinguished. 

212. A more important maritime war was still in progress with the 
Turks in the Mediterranean. In 1565 they had besieged Malta in great 
force, and the defense of that island by the Knights of St. John was one 
of the most valiant operations known to history. The fort St. Elmo was 
taken, but that of St. Michael, commanded by the Grand Master La Va- 
lette, held out, until the Turks, exhausted by a series of desperate attacks, 
gave up their enterprise and sailed away to Constantinople. All the sov- 
ereigns in Europe rivaled each other in showering praises and gifts upon 
the Grand Master, and Valetta, the new capital of Malta, has ever since 



WARS WITH THE TURKS. 209 

borne his name. Solyman was overwhelmed with rage and regret, which 
were hardly assuaged by his capture the next year of the far more fertile 
and valuable island of Chios. 

213. The Sultan was that year making war in Hungary, under pretense 
of supporting the claims of John Sigismund, son of Zapolya, against Maxi- 
milian II. The fortress of Szigeth was at length taken by his forces ; but 
the noxious air of the surrounding marshes proved fatal to Solyman him- 
self, who died in September, 1566. His two elder sons had been put to 
death through the intrigues of Eoxolana, his Russian wife, who thus pre- 
pared the accession of her own son, Selim II. The new sultan was weak 
and profligate, and only secured the allegiance of the Janizaries by largely 
increasing the donative, which, like the praetorian guards of Home, they 
demanded at every change of masters. Making a truce with Maximilian, 
Selim turned his attention to the conquest of Cyprus. This island had 
been for eighty years a dependency of the Venetian Republic, whose power 
was now declining, while the severity of its rule made the Cypriots look 
even to the Turks as deliverers. 

214. In the summer of 1570, a Turkish army of 50,000 was landed on the 
island, and the Venetians, abandoning the open country, shut themselves 
up in the two towns of Famagusta and Nicosia. The latter was taken in 
about two months, the former not until August, 1571. Pius V., always 
an ardent foe of the Moslem power, was now roused to the most strenuous 
exertions ; and the Holy League, consisting of himself, the king of Spain, 
and the Republic of Venice, had soon in the Mediterranean a fleet of 
300 vessels. The command was given to Don John of Austria, half-brother 
of the king of Spain, the most accomplished knight, and soon to become 
the most famous general, of his time. 

215. The Turkish fleet, whose number somewhat exceeded that of the 
Christians, had taken its position in the Gulf of Lepanto, when the allies 
came in sight. The battle which followed was the most memorable naval 
conflict in modern times. The Turks not only lost 224 ships and 30,000 
men, but the fame of their invincible bravery and fortune, which had 
reached its height during the career of Solyman the Magnificent, ceased 
to be a terror to the nations of Europe. The decline of the Ottoman 
Empire is dated from the battle of Lepanto. If the Christians by a 
closer union could have followed up their victory, Greece might have 
been delivered. But rival interests divided their forces, and the death 
of Pius V. for a time interrupted their movements. In 1573, Venice 
made a separate peace with the Turks, surrendering Cyprus and even 
consenting to pay a yearly tribute. Selim died the next year, but not 
until the first collision of his empire with Russia had begun that long 
series of contests for the possession of the Black Sea, which is not yet 
■ended. 

M. H.— 14 



210 MODERN HISTORY. 

216. In western Europe religious divisions were still producing either 
open or secret hostilities. A bull of Pius V. in 1570 excommunicated 
Elizabeth of England and released all her subjects from allegiance. The 
favorite plan of the Pope and the king of Spain was to place the queen 
of Scotland upon the English throne ; but Mary was at this time the 
prisoner of Elizabeth, owing to a train of circumstances which can only 
be briefly indicated. 

The pupil, though of late years the rival of Catherine de' Medici, Mary 
Stuart had returned to her inherited kingdom at the age of nineteen, 
with a character singularly unprepared to encounter the stern spirits 
which now surrounded the Scottish throne. Beautiful, and endowed with 
wonderful fascination of manner, she had been trained at a court where 
pleasure was the chief end of life, and the pursuit of selfish interest the 
only wisdom. The Scotch reformers did not adorn their solid virtues 
with the graces or even the common charities of the Christian life ; in 
their eyes the gaieties of the queen's household were heinous sins, and the 
religion in which she had been educated from her cradle was an idolatry 
to be resisted even unto death. It is difficult to say how much of the 
subsequent calamities sprang from crime, how much from the weakness of 
the queen, or how much from the inevitable hostility between herself and 
her circumstances; but the suspicion which attributed to her an active 
share in the murder of her second husband, Henry Darnley, was only con- 
firmed by her speedy marriage with his .murderer, the Earl of Both well. 

217. She was imprisoned by her nobles in Lochleveu Castle, escaped 
the following year, mustered an army, risked and lost the battle of Lang- 
side near Glasgow, and took refuge in England. The regent of Scotland 
for the young king James VI., came with a retinue to York, where the 
cause between the rebellious subjects and their queen was tried before the 
commissioners of Elizabeth in October, 1568. Mary was neither convicted 
nor acquitted of the murder of Darnley ; but she was detained nineteen 
years in England, the occasion of innumerable plots against the govern- 
ment and life of Elizabeth, and was finally beheaded in 1587. 

218. In the meantime a startling event had destroyed the balance of 
religious parties in France. For two years after the Peace of St. Ger- 
mains (see § 210), the court favored the Huguenots. The death of the 
queen of Spain dissolved for a time the cordial relations between her hus- 
band and her brother, the king of France. The revolt of the Netherlands 
against the tyranny and persecution of Philip 11. also tempted Charles 
IX. to annex the Walloon provinces, formerly fiefs of France, and thus 
extend his kingdom to the Scheldt. Though this secret scheme never led 
to open hostilities with Spain, yet Charles gave his security to a loan 
negotiated by Coligny and Louis of Nassau for the insurgents in the 
Netherlands. 



ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAT. 211 

219. La Eochelle was the capital of the Huguenots ; there Queen Jeanne 
of Navarre held her court and the reformed church its synods, unmolested 
by the Guises or the government. The good-will of the latter was still 
further indicated by the proposal to marry the princess Margaret, third 
sister of Charles IX., to Prince Henry, heir of Navarre. Coligny was in- 
vited to court and loaded with wealth, honors, and assurances of the 
affectionate confidence of the king. He used the power thus intrusted 
to him by striving to consolidate all sects and parties in France against 
the overbearing influence of the king of Spain. He promoted naval 
enterprise and colonization in America. The first settlement within 
the present limits of the United States — near the mouth of the St. 
John in Florida — was under his patronage; but the colony wap ex- 
terminated—men, women, and children being massacred by Spaniards 
from the more recent plantation of St. Augustine. 

220. Shortly before the time appointed for the marriage of Henry of 
Navarre, his mother, Queen Jeanne, died at Paris, June, 1572. The mar- 
riage was celebrated Aug. 18. Four days later, Coligny was shot in the 
street, but not killed, by a man hired for the purpose by the Duke of 
Guise. The king and his mother visited the admiral in his sick-room, 
expressing great indignation and desire to punish the assassin ; but mean- 
while a greater crime was secretly but swiftly preparing. The Guises 
were summoned to court, and the several quarters of Paris were assigned 
to them for the general massacre of the Huguenots, which was now re- 
solved upon. Word was passed through the city ; at the sound of a great 
bell all " good Catholics " were to be in the streets, distinguished by a 
white badge on the left arm and a white cross on the hat. 

n • T . 1 . 1 ^'^S- 24, 1572. 

A little after midnight, m the early morning of St. Bar- 
tholomew's Day, the dreadful signal was given, and instantly, as if a 
myriad of wild beasts had been let loose, the yells of the murderers and 
"i/he despairing cries of their victims resounded through the streets. 

221. The massacre went on eight days and nights in Paris, and spread 
in six weeks through all France. As usual, private interest or revenge 
asserted itself under cover of the reigning excitement. Office-seekers 
murdered those whose places they coveted, suitors their opponents, heirs- 
at-law their nearest relatives. The lowest number of lives thus sacrificed 
in France, as stated by historians, is 20,000. 

222. This outbreak of savage atrocity filled all Europe with surprise, 
but excited very different emotions at the several courts. PhiliiD of Spain 
is said to have laughed for the first time in his life. His cousin, the 
emperor Maximilian, wept over the crime. Elizabeth of England received 
the French embassador in a hall draped with funereal black. No word 
was spoken, but the discomfited nobleman, having advanced through 
silent rows of black-robed figures, had to depart as he came, without 



212 MODERN HISTORY. 

permission to offer his explanations. The Pope (now Gregory XIIL, 
who had succeeded Pius V. in May of this year), celebrated the event 
as a Roman victory, and caused the Hall of Kings in the Vatican to be 
adorned with a fresco representing the massacre. On the other hand, 
the 24th of August was appointed at Geneva to be annually observed as 
a solemn fast. 

223. The revolt of the Netherlands and the rise of the Dutch Eepublic 
— a series of events among the most remarkable in modern times — have 
hardly been alluded to, in order that their history might now be given 
without interruption. These rich and thriving countries — called in vari- 
ous languages the Low, Nether- or Hollow-lands of Europe — had been in 
great part reclaimed from 'the sea, and owed their wealth wholly to the 
industry of their people. The seventeen provinces (see note, page 193), 
differed from each other in language, customs, and laws, and though gov- 
erned in common by the king of Spain, were only united by the occasional 
meeting of their deputies in the States-General. The four Walloon prov- 
inces which bordered France spoke its language, though in a dialect of 
their own. The people of the midland countries spoke Flemish, the 
northern, Dutch — -both languages being a greater or less variation from 
the German. The Netherlands, as a whole, were not only the most pros- 
perous, but the most generally enlightened portion of Europe; for it was 
rare to find even a peasant who could not read and write. Agriculture 
was carried on by the most careful and intelligent methods ; manufactures 
employed multitudes of skillful and industrious artisans ; and the com- 
merce of the East and West Indies had raised Antwerp, Amsterdam, and 
Rotterdam to a rank among the richest European cities. 

224. These free and intelligent people had given an early and extensive 
reception to the doctrines of Luther and Calvin, which Charles V., by 
eleven successive edicts and the establishment of the Inquisition, had 
vainly endeavored to svippress. The Flemish Inquisition was far more 
restrained and mitigated by the secular government than the Spanish; 
but during the reign of Charles several thousands of the people had been 
required to seal their faith with their blood. 

225. In leaving the Netherlands for Spain in 1559, Philip II. had com- 
mitted the regency to his half-sister, the Duchess of Parma. Her cabinet 
consisted of three Councilors: Granvelle, Bishop of Arras — afterward 
Archbishop of Mechlin and cardinal ; Viglius, an experienced lawyer ana 
statesman; and Count Barlaimont, an honest and loyal Flemish noble. 
The most important man in the Netherlands was William, Prince of 
Orange, a favorite of Charles V., but at that period little known except 
for his vast wealth and powerful connections. The House of Nassau, to 
which he belonged, had been for five centuries of princely rank in Ger- 
many, to which it had given one emperor ; and was of older standing in 



REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS. 213 

the Netherlands than that of Philip himself. The principality of Orange 
had been lost in the French wars, but restored to William by the peace 
of Gateau Cambresis. Before the conclusion of that peace, the prince 
was a hostage in Paris, where Henry II. made known to him in confidence 
the secret agreement between himself and the king of Spain to extirpate 
heresy in their respective dominions. William was then an adherent of 
the Eoman Church, but his just soul revolted from the plot, and he was 
thus opportunely put upon his guard. 

226. The creation of a great number of new bishoprics was the first 
step after Philip's accession which alarmed the more liberal party. 
Count Egmont, a Flemish nobleman of the highest distinction, was sent 
to Spain that he might represent to Philip in person the growing dis- 
contents of the Netherlands and ask redress. The count's head was 
turned, however, by the king's flatteries and gifts, and he returned to 
his anxious friends with golden opinions of the just intentions of the 
Spanish court. He was soon followed by letters of the king command- 
ing the Inquisition to proceed without delay, and declaring that Philip 
would rather lose a hundred thousand lives, were they all his own, than 
permit the smallest deviation from the ancient standards of faith. The 
Prince of Orange, as governor of Holland and Zealand, together with 
several other governors of provinces, refused to consent to the burning of 
his countrymen. Wise Flemings took the alarm and sought shelter under 
better governments ; 30,000 of them settled in England alone, and con- 
tributed their capital and skill in fine manufactures to the growing pros- 
perity of that country. 

227. Two thousand persons, including members of all sects and parties, 
now united for mutual defense. While denouncing the Inquisition, they 
reasserted their loyalty to the king, and their determination to keep down 
all tumult and rebellion. A list of demands was presented to the regent, 
who — alarmed by the number and powerful array of her petitioners — 
was reassured by one of her Councilors' branding them as "only a pack 
of beggars." The opprobrious term was seized by the petitioners as a 
party watchword ; it was adopted the next day at a great banquet, where 
Count Brederode appeared carrying a wallet and a wooden bowl, which 
were passed around the table amid jovial shouts of " Long live the 
Beggars!" 

228. The government replied to the petition by an edict which it called 
the Moderation, but as the only concession was in permitting heretics- to 
be hung instead of burned, the people nicknamed the document the 
" Murderation." The excitement increased ; thousands began to assemble, 
first in the woods and by night, but at length in daylight and upon the 
open plains, to listen to preachers who descanted upon the miseries of the 
country. As they grew bolder, cathedrals and churches were pillaged and 



214 MODERN HISTORY. 

images were thrown down. At length the regent, a prisoner in her own 
capital, was compelled to sign a permission for protestants to meet for 
worship, so long as they met unarmed and did not molest those of a 
different faith. A. D. 1566. 

229. Secret intelligence from Spain indicated that war must soon break 
out. A battle was fought near Antwerp (March, 1567), in which 1,500 of 
the "Beggars" were slain, and 300 more were afterward murdered. The 
Prince of Orange, after vainly trying to mediate between the parties, 
withdrew into Germany. The subjugation of the Netherlands was now 
committed by Philip to stronger and sterner hands than those of his 
sister. The Duke of Alva, a man of iron will and cruel inflexibility of 

purpose, arrived with a Spanish army at Brussels. He 

treacherously seized counts Egmont and Horn and threw 

them into a dungeon at Ghent, then proceeded to organize in his own 

house and by his own authority an infamous tribunal which soon justified 

its name, the "Council of Blood." 

230. The Prince of Orange and the nobles with him in Germany were 
summoned before this tribunal ; they replied by denying its authority. 
Count Buren, the eldest son of the prince, was thereupon torn from his 
studies at the university of Louvain and sent into Spain. The Duchess 
of Parma, thus superseded in command, retired into Italy, and Alva, add- 
ing her powers to his own, became Governor-General of the Netherlands. 
The calamities which followed seem rather the work of a madman than 
of a rational and responsible being. The entire population of the Nether- 
lands, with a few exceptions specially stated, were sentenced 

Feb., 1568. ' ^ , -r . . . ^1 

to death by a decree of the Inquisition, confirmed ten days 

later by a royal edict. The very extravagance of this decree showed that 

it was not meant to be literally executed ; but it was made the warrant for 

innumerable atrocities. Common criminals were hanged, nobles beheaded, 

obstinate heretics burnt. At first the government derived a revenue from 

the confiscated property of its victims, but this was soon exhausted, and an 

arbitrary tax of one per cent upon all property, real or personal, five per 

cent upon all transfers of real estate, and ten upon all other articles sold, 

aroused the wrath even of the classes whom the persecutions had spared. 

231. Commerce ceased; towns were deserted; people near the coast 
took refuge upon or beyond the sea, many in the interior fled to the 
forests and became the terror of travelers and of the neighboring vil- 
lages. Many of the sea-farers obtained letters of marque from the Prince 
of Orange, and under their assumed name, "Beggars of the Sea," waged 
piratical warfare against the Spanish marine. The outlaws of the woods 
were called "Wild Beggars." The emperor Maximilian remonstrated 
with his cousin, and claimed the " Circle of Burgundy " as under his own 
protection ; but Philip replied that he would rather not reign at all than 



RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 215 

reign over heretics, and that he would persevere in his present policy 
though the sky should fall. The Prince of Orange now mustered three 
armies from his own resources and the contributions of the Dutch and 
Flemish cities, and planned a threefold attack upon the provinces of 
Alva. Before taking up arms he published a " Justification," in which 
he denounced the Council of Blood and all the atrocious acts of the 
Governor-General, and charged King Philip with having forgotten not 
only the services of the prince and his ancestors, but all his own royal 
oaths as sovereign of the Netherlands. Two of the armies were defeated, 
but Count Louis of Nassau gained a decided victory over the Spaniards 
near Groningen. Adolph of Nassau, a younger brother of the prince, fell 
in the battle, and so did the Spanish commander D'Aremberg. 

232. Counts Egmont and Horn were hastily tried by Alva's Council, 
and sent to execution. Both were Knights of the Golden Fleece, and 
had a right to be tried only by the statutes of their order. Egmont might 
also claim the privileges of his native country, Brabant, solemnly guaran- 
teed by the king of Spain at his accession, while Horn, as a German count, 
was subject only to trial by the electors and princes of the Empire. But 
law and equity were now disregarded. Both noblemen were beheaded in 
the great square at Brussels on the 5th of June, 1568. Two years later 
the baron Montigny, brother of Count Horn, who had gone on an embassy 
to Spain in 1566, was privately garroted in the prison to which he had 
been illegally consigned. 

233. After the executions of Egmont and Horn, Alva marched against 
Louis of Nassau, who suffered a defeat, with the entire loss of his army, at 
Emden, and escaped without followers into Germany. His brother, the 
prince, was soon afterward compelled to disband his troops, and both pro- 
ceeded, with a few hundreds of horsemen, to the aid of the Huguenots in 
France, while waiting for a brighter day to dawn upon their own dis- 
tracted country. 

234. For four years the Sea-Beggars had carried their prizes into Eng- 
lish ports, where they obtained water and provisions, though the country 
was nominally at peace with Spain. Elizabeth secretly supplied money 
to the Flemish patriots, while Philip sent gold, spies, and even assassins 
into England to foment plots against the queen. At length, however, 
the English sovereign, unwilling to declare war, and unable to continue 
her aid to the rebels without it, forbade her subjects to sell food to the 
Beggars of the Sea. De la Marck, one of the Flemish captains, there- 
upon sailed from England, with twenty-four vessels, to the northernmost 
island of Zealand, and seizing upon Briel, its capital, made it the strong- 
hold of the privateers. Walcheren, Enckhuisen, and a multitude of towns 
in the northern provinces, hastened to throw off the despotic yoke of Alva. 
Deputies from the nobles and cities met at Dort, July 15, 1572, and de- 



216 MODERN HISTORY. 

clared the Prince of Orange to be the lawful Stacltholder of Holland, 
Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht, during the absence of Philip II. Thus 
Queen Elizabeth's order in council led indirectly to the rise of the Dutch. 
Republic. 

235. Alva was for the moment in despair. The French court seemed to 
have turned protestant and to be bent upon espousing the cause of the 
heretics in the Netherlands. Louis of Nassau was besieged in Mons, but 
his brother the prince, advancing with a German army, had captured 
Euremond, Mechlin, Dendermonde, and Oudenarde, and was on the point 
of relieving him, when news of the St. Bartholomew massacres in France 
completely changed the aspect of aflfairs. A band of Huguenot soldiers, 
paid by Charles IX. to cooperate in the defense of Mons, were betrayed, 
and by their king's own recommendation to Alva, were slaughtered in 
cold blood after they were made prisoners. Mons surrendered upon hon- 
orable terms. All the towns of Brabant and Flanders were compelled to 
submit to Alva. Mechlin was abandoned to three days' pillage and mas- 
sacre. The revolution in the southern provinces was ended in defeat, but 
in the northern it was triumphant, and the Prince of Orange returning to 
Holland was put in possession of the government. 

236. During the winter of 1572-73, the Dutch fleet was frozen up in the 
harbor of Amsterdam. The Spaniards marched across the ice to attack it, 
but a troop of Dutch musketeers on skates made a successful defense. The 
siege of Haarlem was among the most obstinate actions of the war. Sev- 
eral hundreds of the most honorable women enrolled and armed them- 
selves for the defense of their native city, and took part in several battles. 
Thousands of Spaniards perished from cold, hunger, and sickness ; but the 
town surrendered at last, and between two and three thousand citizens 
were put to death. Alkmaar, warned by this example, made so resolute 
a resistance that the Spanish commander had to raise the siege. Alva was 
soon after superseded by Don Louis de Requesens, whose just and lib- 
eral character was a pledge of a more conciliatory policy. Wholesale rob- 
bery and murder were now suppressed, but the oppressive taxes continued 
to be levied, and the Council of Blood maintained its sittings. The 
patriots were every-where victorious at sea, but on land the invincible 
Spanish infantry kept its ancient renown. Louis of Nassau, marching 
with some German recruits to join his brother, was defeated and slain 
near Nimeguen, Feb., 1574. 

237. The siege of Leyden, interrupted by his invasion, was soon re- 
sumed, and its heroic defense is one of the most wonderful events of the 
century. The garrison was small, but the resistance was mainly kept up 
A D i'74 ^^ *^® valor and constancy of the citizens. Famine began 

to be felt in June, and it was the 3d of October before the 
city could be relieved. The Prince of Orange, anxiously watching the 



BELIEF OF LEYDEN. 217 

enemy from his head-quarters at Delft and Rotterdam, could not approach 
with his fleet without breaking the dykes on the Meuse and Yssel, and 
thus laying the country under water. The young grain was in the field; 
but the States consented to the sacrifice, and under the prince's direc- 
tion, the dykes were cut. The starving citizens of Leyden watched from 
their towers the rising of the flood which was to bear them relief. A 
provision fleet of 200 vessels sailed from Delft ; but twice the waters 
were driven back by an east wind, and it lay heljDlessly stranded, while 
the more feeble and desperate citizens were crowding around the burgo- 
master in Leyden, clamoring for either food or surrender. The magistrate 
replied : " I have taken an oath never to put myself or my fellow-citizens 
in the power of the false and cruel Spaniards; and I will rather die 
than break it. But here is my sword ; plunge it, if you will, into my 
breast, and devour my flesh, if that will relieve your hunger." 

238. The people were roused to new courage, and at length their pa- 
tience was rewarded. A north-westerly gale set in on the 1st of October ; 
the waters of the German Ocean came pouring in over the ruined dykes. 
The fleet, now fairly afloat, had a singular midnight combat with that of 
the Spaniards amid the boughs of orchards and the chimneys of sub- 
merged houses ; but the determination of the enemy was at length worn 
out by the amazing constancy of the besieged, in whose cause the ele- 
ments of wind and water seemed enlisted. Even the fall of a large 
portion of the walls of Leyden, undermined by the waters, only fright- 
ened the besiegers, who, hastily abandoning their two forts, sought safety 
in retreat. The Dutch fleet sailed up the Channel, distributing loaves of 
bread all the way into the eager hands of the crowd which lined the 
banks. As soon as the pangs of hunger were relieved, the whole -popu- 
lation of the city walked in joyful procession to the principal church, 
where thanks were rendered for the great deliverance. The next day a 
north-easterly gale swept away the invading waters, and the dykes were 
soon repaired. Leyden was rewarded by the institution of a ten days' 
annual fair, and by the foundation of a university which has given many 
illustrious men to Europe. 

239. Philip II., defeated in war and ruined in finance, at length con- 
sented to the mediation of the emperor which he had before so arro- 
gantly refused. To this end, a three months' congress was held at Buda 
in 1575. The king, however, would make no concession, and the States, 
in any case, had no reason to believe his word, so that the war broke out 
again more furiously than ever. The death of Eequesens in March, 
1576, threw the country into yet greater confusion, for the unpaid 
soldiery, now in open mutiny, marched through the provinces, plunder- 
ing and destroying at their own savage will. Alost, Ghent, Utrecht, 
Valenciennes, and Maestricht successively fell into their hands; and at 



218 MODERN HISTORY. 

last Antwerp, the richest city of the Netherlands, and then the financial 
center of all Europe, was subjected to a three days' pillage. A thousand 
houses were burnt and eight thousand citizens murdered. 

240. In this disastrous condition of the southern provinces, the Prince 
of Orange persuaded the authorities at Brussels to summon the States- 
General ; and when these were assembled, he complied with their request 
by sending several thousand troops to expel the Spaniards from Ghent. 
An alliance was now formed between the northern and the southern Neth- 
erlands, under the name of the Pacification of Ghent. It 
was agreed to summon the Estates of all the provinces to 
an assembly similar to that which had received the abdication of Charles 
V. ; to expel all Spanish troops from the country and to provide for peace 
and toleration in matters of religion. 

HE C.A.E'ITXJXj.^TIOlNr . 

Subjugation of the Moriscoes in Spain. Gallant defense of Malta by the Knights of St. 
John. Death of Solyman during his wars in Hungary. Capture of Cyprus by Selim II. 
John of Austria, in command of the allied forces, gains a great victory over the Turks at 
Lepanto. Mary, Queen of Scotland, imprisoned at Lochleven, abdicates in favor of her son. 
Becomes the prisoner of Elizabeth of England, to whose throne she has a claim ; is behead- 
ed after nineteen years' captivity. Brief ascendency of the Huguenots in France. Murder 
of Coligny and general massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. Prosperity of the Netherlands ; 
establishment of the Inquisition under Charles V. Kegency of Margaret of Parma. Popu- 
larity of William of Orange. Mission of Count Egmont to Spain. Persecuting edicts of 
Philip II. Remonstrances of the " Beggars." Arrival of the Duke of Alva as Governor-Gen- 
eral. Establishment of the Council of Blood; death-sentence of the entire people; restric- 
tions upon commerce. Prince of Orange publishes his Justification and takes up arms. 
Illegal execution of counts Egmont and Horn. Louis of Nassau victorious near Groningen, 
but defeated at Emden, joins the Huguenots in France, surrenders Mons upon receiving 
news of the St. Bartholomew massacres; is afterward defeated and slain at Nimeguen. 
Capture of Briel by the Sea-Beggars, union of four provinces under the Prince of Orange, 
forming the germ of the Dutch Republic. Fall of Haarlem ; successful resistance of Alk- 
maar. Requesens replaces Alva as Governor-General. Siege of Leyden ; its brave defense, 
and relief by the arrival of the fleet. Failure of Congress of Buda to restore peace to the 
Netherlands. "Spanish fury" at Antwerp and other places. Northern and southern prov- 
inces briefly united by the Pacification of Ghent. 



Wars of 'Religion.— Continued. 

241. The same year died the emperor Maximilian, the first European 
sovereign who recognized the duty of universal toleration. In Austria 
and Bohemia, his hereditary dominions, he relaxed all religious despot- 
ism, though his policy was in some degree thwarted by his near con- 
nection with the Spanish branch of his house ; for he had married a sister 
of Philip II., whose fourth wife was a daughter of Maximilian. The em- 
press Mary was a devoted adherent of the Jesuits, to whose arts the 
emperor opposed an inflexible resistance. By treaty with John Sigis- 
mund of Hungary, all that kingdom, except Transylvania, was secured to 



WABS OF RELIGION. 219 

Maximilian, and he was about contesting the elective crown of Poland 
with Stephen Bathori, when he died at the age of 49. The imperial dig- 
nities were conferred upon his son Rudolph II., who had already received 
the title King of the Eomans and the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia. 

242. Charles IX. of France survived the crime of St. Bartholomew's 
less than two years; and his early death — for he was only twenty-three 
years of age — was apparently due rather to torments of con- 
science preying upon a feeble nervous constitution than to 

mere bodily disease. His brother Henry, now heir to the crown, was 
in Poland, having been elected king of that country a year before the 
death of Charles ; but he had departed most unwillingly from Paris and 
gladly obeyed the summons to return. He quitted Poland like a thief, 
carrying with him the crown jewels, and was pursued sixty miles on 
horseback by a large number of the Polish nobility, who desired to secure 
the kingdom from the anarchy too certain to follow so sudden an abdi- 
cation. The fugitive king had not concerned himself to make any dis- 
position of the government; but after more than a year of confusion, 
Stephen Bathori received the votes of the nobles. A. D. 1575. 

243. The condition of France would have taxed greater talents and 
energies than those of Henry III. The Huguenots, in spite of the efforts 
of the court, had been rather strengthened than defeated by the events 
of 1573. The middle party, consisting of just and moderate Catholics, 
led by the Montmorencies, were shocked by the crimes and alarmed by 
the foreign alliances of the Guises. The consolidated monarchy so cau- 
tiously built up by Louis XI., seemed ready to resolve itself again into 
its feudal elements. La Rochelle, Nismes, and Montauban were like inde- 
pendent republics; the provinces of Languedoc, . Guienne, Poitou, and 
others in the south-west, united themselves in a confederacy, which raised 
taxes, administered justice, and ordered military movements like a sover- 
eign state. All over France, governors of provinces, and even comman- 
dants of towns and castles, acted independently of the crown. 

244. The points now in dispute were rather political than religious ; 
for of the original leaders of the Huguenots the greater number were 
either dead, exiled, or apostate. Even the King of Navarre and the 
Prince of Conde reconciled themselves, though insincerely, the year after 
the massacre, with the Eoman Church. The Duke of Alengon, the king's 
only remaining brother, declared himself the protector of the Huguenots, 
and joined their army in Poitou. The prince-palatine, John Casimir, 
also their ally, led an army of 18,000 men into France. No important 
battle was fought, but the result of the movement was the most favora. 
ble treaty that the Huguenots had ever obtained from the „ ,,„^ 

•' ° _ _ May, 1576, 

court. It was called la paix de Monsieur, this being already 

the conventional title of the king's eldest brother. Perfect freedom of 



220 MODERN HISTORY. 

worship was conceded throughout France, except at Paris and in the im- 
mediate precincts of tlae court, wherever it might be. The Duke of 
Alengon received Touraine, Berri, and Anjou in full sovereignty, and 
bore thenceforth the title of the latter duchy. Having gained all that 
he expected from his alliance with the Huguenots, he now deserted them, 
and subsequently commanded an army against them. The King of Na- 
varre was restored to his government of Guienne, the Prince of Conde 
received that of Picardy, and all the leaders were reinstated in their 
offices and pensions. 

245. The Guise party alone derived no advantage from the treaty, and 
their discontent led to the coalition of Catholic nobles known in history 
by preeminence as The League. The formula signed by all its members 
promised "unlimited obedience to its head without respect of persons" 
and without reservation of the royal supremacy. The treasonable nature 
of the organization was only made apparent at a later day when it placed 
itself under the protection of a foreign sovereign, Philip H. of Spain. A 
plot was, however, already formed at Rome to seize and arraign the Duke 
of Anjou, exterminate the Huguenots, shut up the incompetent king in 
prison like the rois faineants of the Merovingian line, and place the Duke 
of Guise himself, as a descendant of Charlemagne, upon the throne of 
France. This plan was discovered among the papers of a lawyer named 
David, who died at Lyons on his return to Eome ; but it was regarded 
as a malicious fabrication of the Huguenots until another copy, obtained 
from King Philip, was forwarded from Spain by tho French embassador 
to that country. 

246. Henry HI., alarmed by this commentary on the real purposes of 
the League, knew of no better way to avert its enmity than to place 
himself at its head. The States-General were already summoned to meet 
at Blois early in the winter of 1577. The manifesto of the League, first 
cleared of all expressions which seemed to limit or contest the royal pre- 
rogative, was laid before the assembly for acceptance. Some of the 
deputies signed it ; others refused. All were offended by the' false and 
undignified position in which the king's cowardice had placed him, and 
they declined to vote supplies for a continuance of the war. The condi- 
tions of the " Peace of Monsieur " were in truth too favorable to have 
been sincerely guaranteed, and the Huguenots, even during the sitting of 
the States, had been pushing their conquests in the south-west. 

247. A new peace was now concluded by the treaty of Bergerac, and 

the king, forgetful of the perils which still beset his throne, 

' ' plunged more deeply than ever into base and frivolous 

amusements. The orgies of the court could only have been paralleled in 

the deepest degradation of the Roman emperors. Violence, as well as 

luxury, ran riot, and murders were the unmarked occurrences of almost 



AFFAIRS OF PORTUGAL. 221 

every day. The hostility of the Guises made it necessary for the court 
to remain at peace with the Huguenots. In the summer of 1578, Catherine 
de' Medici, accompanied by her daughter, Queen Margaret, and a "flying 
squadron " of court-beauties, visited the King of Navarre in his capital, 
and spent more than a year in the south, using all her Italian arts to 
pacify and conciliate his party. The treaty of Nerac (Feb., 1579) secretly 
assured to the protestants greater favors than had been promised in that 
of Bergerac. One wearies of detailing the alternations of faithless peace 
with indecisive wars. In the spring of 1580, upon the slightest possible 
pretext, hostilities recommenced. This time the affair was called the 
" War of the Lovers," from its whimsical origin. It was the seventh in 
the series of what are commonly, but to a great extent inappropriately, 
called Wars of Religion. Peace was mediated by the Duke of Anjou, 
who was now desirous to assume the protectorate offered him by the in- 
surgents in the Netherlands ; while the court saw reason for breaking its 
friendly relations with the king of Spain in the sudden and alarming 
increase of his power by the conquest of Portugal. 

248. King Sebastian succeeded his grandfather, John III., at the in- 
fantile age of three years. His long minority was ruled by Jesuits, who 
instilled into his mind romantic dreams of conquest over infidels; and 
at the age of twenty he set forth with high hopes to wage war against 
the Moors of Africa. Little was accomplished by this first 

attempt; but, four years later, he renewed the enterprise in 
aid of the fugitive king, Muley Mohammed, who had been driven from 
his throne by his uncle. In the battle of Alcazarquivir, Sebastian was 
defeated and slain, and his army, including most of the nobles and prel- 
ates of his realm, was nearly annihilated. The king was succeeded by 
his uncle. Cardinal Henry of Braga, who, however, reigned but two 
years, and the crown was then contested by several claimants more or 
less related to his family. 

249. The most powerful, and therefore the successful, candidate was 
Philip of Spain, who sent the Duke of Alva into Portugal, with 24,000 
Italian and Spanish veterans, within a few months after King Henry's 
death. Don Antonio, nephew of the late king, had been crowned at 
Lisbon in June, 1580, but he was defeated and wounded in the battle 
of Alcantara, and finding resistance hopeless, escaped, after some months, 
into France. Alva set up in Portugal a similar reign of terror to that 
which he had conducted in the Netherlands, but, instead of heretics, his 
victims were now monks. The conquest being completed, Philip entered 
the country to receive the homage of the Estates, and spent two years in 
arranging the affairs of Portugal. 

250. The other powers of Europe had been too much absorbed in their 
own afiairs to interfere with the progress of Philip. France and England 



222 MODERN HISTORY. 

suddenly became conscious of the extension of the Spanish dominion, not 
only throughout the Iberian peninsula, but over the rich and undevel- 
oped possessions of Portugal in Brazil, Africa, and the Indies. The French 
court sent two naval expeditions to the Azores, which had declared for 
Don Antonio. These islands were of the greatest importance as a refit- 
ing and watering station for vessels bound either for the East or West 
Indies; and a fierce combat for their possession was fought between the 
French and Spanish fleets. It resulted in the destruction of the former, 
and all the French prisoners were put to death as pirates. The power 
of Philip was firmly established in the islands. 

251. The interference of France was avenged by a still closer alliance 
of the king of Spain with the Guises, who in his interest had watched and 
attempted to thwart the expedition to the Azores. This failing, Philip 
tried the other party, and repeatedly offered money to the King of Na- 
varre to renew his wars against Henry III. His overtures Avere rejected, 

and the death of the Duke of Anjou only drew closer the 
relations between the two French princes, for Henry of 
Navarre, as head of the House of Bourbon, now became heir-presumptive 
to the throne of France. The same event occasioned a renewal of the 
League, under the protection of Philip of Spain. A formal treaty was 
signed by the heads of the League and the envoys of Philip, in December, 
1584, in which the "extirpation of all protestant and heretical sects in 
the Netherlands, as well as in France, and the exclusion of heretical 
princes from the throne," were prominent articles. 

252. Alarmed by the movements of the League, but not daring to break 
with the king of Spain, Henry III. refused the petition of the States of 
Holland which besought his protection, and by the Edict of Nemours 
yielded all the points demanded in the manifesto of the Guise party. 
He revoked all former edicts of toleration, and warned adherents of the 
reformed doctrines to quit his kingdom within six months. 



i?;EC-A.:piTXJXj-A.mo2sr. 

Accession of Henry III. in France, Stephen Bathori in Poland, and Enrtolph II. in the 
Empire. Feudal elements in France opposed to centralized government. The Duke of 
Alencon protects the Huguenots and obtains for them a favorable peace. The League is 
organized by the Guises; Henry III. places himself at its head; the States-General disap- 
prove. Treaties of Bergerac and N6rac. War of the Lovers followed by a peace demanded 
by the foreign relations of the court. 

King Sebastian of Portugal perishes in a vain attempt against the Moors of Africa. 
Short reign of King Henry. The crown successfully claimed by Phihp of Spain, who thus 
gains the rich colonial possessions, as well as the European territory, of Portugal. Defeat 
of a French fleet sent to support the cause of Don Antonio in the Azores. Death of the 
Duke of Anjou and Alenc^on makes Henry of Navarre heir to France. Edict of Nemours 
revokes all acts of toleration. 



AFFAIRS OF THE NETHERLANDS. 22S 

Affaies of the Netherlands. 

253. "We go back eight years to take up the eventful history of the 
Netherlands. Shortly before the Pacification of Ghent, John of Austria, 
the hero of Lepanto, was intrusted by his brother Philip with the gov- 
ernment of these rebellious states; but so united were the people in their 
resistance, that he was compelled to enter even Luxem- 
bourg — the only province which had refused to join the 

Union ^ — ^in the disguise of a Moorish slave. Unprovided with either money 
or troops, he had no choice but to yield all the points demanded by the in- 
surgents, and swear to observe all the charters and customs of the country. 
These concessions were embodied in the Perpetual Edict, a name which 
seems intended for a mockery, when we learn the instructions of the court 
of Spain to the regent, recommending him to promise every thing but per- 
form nothing. Even after his edict, Don John was refused possession of 
the citadel of Brussels. He revenged himself by treacherously seizing 
the fortress of Namur, and by capturing Charlemont and Marienburg. 
The citadels of Ghent and Antwerp were destroyed by the people of those 
places to prevent their falling into his hands. 

254. A rival to John of Austria was now set up by the Catholic nobles, 
in the person of the Archduke Matthias, brother of the emperor. The 
Prince of Orange recognized Matthias as Governor-General of the Neth- 
erlands and was named his lieutenant. A new Union of Brussels — a 
league of all the States for the common defense, on a basis of perfect 
religious toleration — drew more closely the ties between the northern 
and southern provinces. It was the last time that all the Low Countries 
were united, until the present century (A. D. 1814—1830). 

255. Queen Elizabeth, about this time, discovered a plot of Don John 
to depose her, marry Mary Stuart, and reign over England — the plan 
being favored by the Pope and the Guises, but regarded with unbroth- 
erly jealousy by the king of Spain. Moved by this state of afiairs, she 
was inclined to render more effective aid to the people of the Nether- 
lands, and early in 1578 her contribution of 6,000 men joined the army 
of the States. Philip had prepared for this combination by sending 
his nephew, Alexander Farnese, with reinforcements of Spanish and 
Italian veterans. The battle of Gemblours resulted in the sudden rout 
and almost total destruction of the army of the States ; but the accession 
of Amsterdam a week later to the Union of Brussels more than consoled 
the patriots for that disaster. The following August, Don John was de- 
feated at Rymenants, mainly by the English auxiliaries, and died two 
months later from disease. He was succeeded by Alexander of Parma — 
undoubtedly the greatest general of the age, though lacking that fascina- 
tion of manner which occasioned the unbounded popularity of his prede- 
cessor. 



224 MODERN HISTORY. 

256. Meanwhile the party which had set up the Archduke Matthias 
discovered that he was a useless puppet, and virtually deposed him by 
calling in the Duke of Anjou (see above, § 245). Anjou was a weak and 
insignificant character, capable of being flattered by the high sounding 
title, " Defender of the Liberties of the Netherlands." He hoped to ob- 
tain a crown by marriage with the queen of England, a hope which the 
subtle or wavering policy of Elizabeth neither indulged nor denied. En- 
tering Hainault with a French army in September, 1578, he took several 
towns; then feigning submission to the will of Elizabeth, he retired into 
France. The queen's firm persuasion of the divine right of kings, made 
her averse to the independence of the Netherlands, though she desired 
that their hereditary sovereign should be compelled to respect their 
ancient rights. Her council, on the other hand, desired to see them 
severed from the Spanish crown even at the price of their becoming 
dependencies of France. 

257. The union of the seventeen states was overthrown at last, not 
by foreign despotism, but by the riotous conduct of the popular party. 
Two noblemen, of radical principles and depraved character, excited an 
insurrection at Ghent, against the terms of the religious peace. They 
imprisoned its governor and set up a democracy in which the law-mak- 
ing power was intrusted to the deans of the guilds and the captains of 
militia, while the executive was vested in a council of eighteen citizens. 
Many other towns followed the example. The Archduke Matthias and 
the prince-palatine, John Casimir, were allies of the democracy, and the 
division between the reputed friends of freedom proved fatal to the in- 
terests of the country. The arms which were needed against the com- 
mon enemy were turned against each other ; the Walloon provinces were 
devastated by a Huguenot force, while the Walloons, aided by the French, 
ravaged the country up to the gates of Ghent. 

258. These disorders, in which the destructive elements were mixed up 
with the Huguenot cause, effectually severed the Catholic provinces from 
the Union of Brussels. The Prince of Orange, who had vainly interfered 
to suppress the revolutionary movements by protecting the interests of 
the Eomish priests and people, only succeeded in forming a perpetual 
confederation of the seven protestant countries* by a document called 
the Union of Utrecht. Nominal allegiance was still rendered to Philip 
II.; but it was resolved to drive all foreigners from the country, and to 
restore in each province its ancient and peculiar laws, customs, and priv- 
ileges. A congress at Cologne, under the auspices of the emperor Eudolph 
II., and attended by the envoys of the Netherlands, France, England, sev- 
eral German states, Philip and the Pope, failed to procure the union and 



* Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Guelders, Overyssel, Friesland, and Groningen. 



AFFAIRS OF THE NETHERLANDS. 225 

reconciliation of all the provinces, for though seven months were spent in 
busy diplomacy, no concession could be extorted from either side. 

259. The four Walloon provinces resumed their obedience to Philip II. 
on condition of the Avithdrawal of the Spanish troops; and the Nether- 
lands were thus divided into three parts : the protestant United States of 
the north ; the middle or Flemish provinces, whose people belonged almost 
equally to the two communions ; and the wholly Catholic Walloon prov- 
inces of the south. Maestricht, after three months' siege by Farnese, 
yielded at the end of June, and was given up to the brutal rage of the 
Spanish troops. The Prince of Orange restored order to Ghent and ex- 
acted a just restitution of property which had been plundered during the 
riots. 

260. Cardinal Granvelle had now returned to power, and it was by his 
advice that Philip II. published his royal ban against the prince. The 
crimes of Cain and Judas were denounced against that illustrious and 
blameless patriot ; a price of 25,000 gold crowns was set upon his head, 
and the murderer was moreover 23romised pardon for all crimes, however 
heinous, which he might have committed, and promotion into the proud 
ranks of Spanish nobility. William replied by one of his most remarka- 
ble state-papers, in which he treated the royal denunciation with the scorn 
which it deserved. He declared that all Philip's hereditary claims upon 
the Netherlands were canceled by the violation of his solemn oaths and 
the charters of those states, " not once only, but a million of times;" and 
indignantly flung back the charge of having fomented discord in those 
countries upon the king himself, whose atrocious cruelty had made his 
most loyal and peaceful subjects the victims of robbery and massacre. 
Eidiculing the attempt to terrify him by setting a price upon his head, 
he inquired whether Philip could suppose him ignorant of the many 
previous undertakings of paid poisoners and assassins. And affixing his 
name and seal, bearing the characteristic motto, "I will maintain," he 
sent the document to most of the European sovereigns. 

261. Negotiations were now renewed with the Duke of Anjou, and the 
Archduke Matthias was permitted to retire on a pension. The French 
prince signed an agreement to reside constantly in the Netherlands ; to 
assemble the States-General once a year, and strictly to observe the rights 
and privileges of the provinces. In return he was invested with full sov- 
ereignty in all the provinces, except Holland and Zealand, which were 
reserved for the Prince of Orange. On the 26th of July, 1581, the States- 
General at the Hague cast off" their allegiance to Philip II. by a solemn 
Act of Abjuration, and proclaimed Francis of Valois as sovereign lord of 
the Netherlands. The paper was drawn up by Sainte Aldegonde, a friend 
of the Prince of Orange, and is the first distinct assertion of the natural 
right of a people to depose an unjust sovereign. It declares that princes 

M. H.— 15. 



226 MODERN HISTORY. 

are appointed of God to rule for the good of their subjects, and that if 
they neglect their sacred duty — oppressing instead of protecting their 
people— the latter are no longer bound in law or reason to recognize their 
authority. It was the first of a series of charters of political freedom, 
which were only reenacted by our own Declaration of Independence. 

262. Leading an army of 17,000 men into the Netherlands, the Duke 
of Anjou compelled Alexander of Parma to raise the siege of Cambray, 
and entered that city in triumph. A few months later he made his 
Joyous Entry into Antwerp, where he was invested by the Prince of 
Orange with the ducal cap and mantle, and duly proclaimed "Duke 
of Brabant, and Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire." Other prov- 
inces successively installed him in their respective sovereignties. But 
he was ill content with the limited power thus conferred, bitterly 
jealous of the superior influence of the Prince of Orange; and was 
already plotting with his worthless favorites to overthrow the liberties 
which he had solemnly sworn to maintain. He was never trusted by the 
Flemings, and when, under pretense of a review, he brought his army to 

take military possession of Antwerp, the people flew to 
■' ' ■ arms, secured their streets with chains and barricades, 

and made so valorous a resistance that only half the French troops 
left the city alive. The "French Fury" of 1583 was less destructive to 
Antwerp than the "Spanish Fury" of 1576, chiefly because the soldiers 
of Anjou began to plunder before they killed, while the more 'method- 
ical Spaniards first murdered and then took easy possession of the prop- 
erty of their victims. Bafiled in his design, the new sovereign mounted 
his horse and fled toward Dendermonde. A dyke was opened upon his 
route, and a thousand of his followers were drowned. Having ceased by 
his own act to be the Protector of the Netherlands, Anjou retired to 
Dunkirk, and though a treaty of reconciliation was signed in March, he 
soon quitted the country never to return. 

263. The wars in Portugal were now ended, and with fresh reinforce- 
ments, the Prince of Parma was able to resume active operations. Before 
the autumn of 1584, only three Flemish towns remained to the patriot 
party. But in July of that year the Netherlands sustained a far severer 
loss in the assassination of their brave and faithful leader, the Prince of 
Orange. Within two years five attempts upon his life had been made by 
agents of Philip of Spain. The first was so nearly fatal as to occasion 
indirectly the death of the princess, through her anxiety and suspense. 
The successful murderer was one Balthazar Gerard, a Burgundian, who, 
under pretense of obtaining a passport, gained admission to the house- 
hold of the Prince. He was seized immediately after the fatal deed and 
put to death with a refinement of cruelty which has been well described 
as " a crime against the memory of the great man whom it professed to 



DEATH OF WILLIAM THE SILENT. 227 

avenge." His parents received the promised reward from the estates of 
his victim ; and three lordships in Franche Comte, with a title among 
the landed aristocracy of Burgundy, were the lasting badges of their 
shame. 

264. To the self-denying and steadfast energy of William of Orange 
the Dutch Republic owed its existence, though he was not permitted to 
see its freedom established. The greatest statesman of his time, he pos- 
sessed in singular measure the art of reading the purposes of others and 
concealing his own, and to this last accomplishment, rather than to un- 
social taciturnity of manner, he owed his surname, the Silent. His im- 
mense fortune had been spent in the service of his country ; and he had 
repeatedly refused the most magnificent offers of wealth and dominion, 
by which the king of Spain had sought to detach him from the cause 
which he had embraced. His imprisoned son should be restored; cities, 
estates, and sovereignties in Germany should be conferred; in short, he 
had only to name his terms for abandoning the often apparently hopeless 
scheme of reestablishing the Netherlands in their ancient rights. "They 
well knew," afterward said the Prince, " that I would not for property 
nor for life, for wife nor for children, mix in my cup a single drop of 
the poison of treason." 

265. The Count de Buren (see § 230) was still a prisoner in Spain — 
an alien not less from the faith and patriotism than from the home of 
his father. The second son, Maurice, though only eighteen years of 
age, was immediately named Stadtholder of Holland, Zealand, and 
Utrecht, and High Admiral of the Union. 

The siege of Antwerp, continuing nearly a year, taxed all the consum- 
mate genius of the Prince of Parma, while its defense displayed not only 
the ability of Sainte Aldegonde, but the extraordinary valor and constancy 
of the citizens. Half a year was spent by the Spaniards in the construc- 
tion of a fortified bridge or causeway below the city to cut off its con- 
nection with the maritime provinces. The besieged attempted in vain to 
destroy it by means of fire-ships, and, in seeking to open a new passage to 
the sea, they were defeated in a bloody battle fought upon the dykes. 
The city surrendered; its fortress was rebuilt from the ruins of private 
habitations; and with the entry of a foreign garrison and the Jesuits, 
"civilization and commerce departed." Where had been the banking 
center of all Europe, grass grew and cattle fed in the deserted streets; 
while thrift, intelligence, and industry sought other homes. 

266. The queen of England, knowing herself to be the subject of a 
similar plot to that which had proved fatal to the Prince of Orange, 
now made a public alliance with the Hollanders, and sent men and money 
to their aid, justifying her conduct to the world by a state-paper in which 
she recited the iniquities of the Spanish government toward the Nether- 



228 MODERN HISTORY. 

lands and its secret hostilities against herself. The States, in return, 
placed Flushing and Briel in her hands as security for the moneys ex- 
pended, and conferred upon the Earl of Leicester, commander of the 
English forces, the title of Governor-General. The queen, who had her- 
self repeatedly refused the sovereignty of the Netherlands when urged 
upon her by the States, was thrown into a tempest of wrath by the 
earl's acceptance of that dignity, and her sharp reprimand, read in the 
presence of the States-General, went far to undo all the advantage of the 
alliance, for it awakened strong suspicions — which, indeed, were not 
groundless — that she was secretly in correspondence with the king of 
Spain. On the other hand, Philip retaliated the queen's manifesto by 
seizing all English persons and property then in his dominions; and the 
Prince of Parma pressed hostilities in the Netherlands with redoubled 
vigor. 

267. In September, Leicester besieged Zutphen, and in a skirmish be- 
fore that place, Sir Philip Sidney, the most accomplished knight and 
gentlest spirit of his age, received a mortal wound. He had insisted on 
lending a portion of his armor to an older officer, who happened to be 
unprovided, and the exposure cost him his life. As he suffered from in- 
supportable thirst, water was brought him, but at that moment he saw 
a wounded soldier carried by in his last agonies, who cast a longing eye 
upon the cup. "Take it, my friend," said Sidney, pushing it from his 
lips; "thy necessity is greater than mine." He died three weeks later 
at Arnheim. Leicester, finding at length that he had undertaken a task 
beyond his powers, returned to England at the end of the year 1687. 
The command-in-chief devolved upon Prince Maurice, Lord Willoughby 
having control only of the English troops. 

268. One of the greatest of the popes, Sixtus V., had now succeeded to 
Gregory XIII. Bred in a Franciscan convent, Sixtus's mind had never 
been set free from the romantic dreams of youth by actual contact with 
the world; and he cherished designs of overthrowing the Turkish Em- 
pire, conquering Egypt, opening a maritime passage from the Mediter- 
ranean to the Eed Sea, and transporting the Holy Sepulcher into Italy. 
Happily, more practicable schemes had their place in the mind of Sixtus. 
He improved the water supply of Eome, adorned it with new buildings, 
and exterminated the banditti, who, during the inefficient reign of his 
predecessor, had swarmed in the papal states. The number of cardinals, 
hitherto fluctuating with the avarice, ambition, or revenge of successive 
popes, was fixed by him at seventy, in memory of the elders who aided 
Moses with their counsels. 

269. The execution of Queen Mary of Scotland at Fotheringay Castle 
(Feb., 1587) inflamed the enmity of Philip II. and the Pope against 
Elizabeth. The Spanish king, who had long meditated the conquest of 



THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. 229 

England as a stepping-stone to Holland, now proclaimed himself heir to 
the House of Lancaster and rightful sovereign of the former country. 
The depredations of Sir Francis Drake upon the Spanish possessions in 
America only heightened his resolution. San Domingo, Porto Eico, San- 
tiago, Cartagena, and Florida had been plundered and ravaged. With 
his fleet of forty ships, Drake destroyed about a hundred Spanish vessels 
laden with military and naval stores under the very guns of Lisbon and 
Cadiz ; and as another result of his enterprise, was able to report to his 
queen the preparations going on in the Spanish ports. 

270. In May, 1588, the fleet of Philip, proudly called the Invincible 
Armada, sailed from Lisbon, and after a temporary dispersion in a storm, 
entered the English Channel. Her eyes once opened to the danger, the 
queen had made the most heroic exertions, and her spirit animated all 
her people. As soon as the appearance of the Armada was made known 
by a fishing-boat, which had been stationed to watch. Lord Howard of 
Efiingham stood forth to meet it. No general engagement ensued, but 
seven days were spent in frequent skirmishes, in which the lighter Eng- 
lish vessels had usually the advantage over the heavy and unmanageable 
Spaniards ; while fire-ships drifted down with the tide into the midst of 
the Armada. The Duke of Parma, who had prepared a powerful fieet 
and army to cooperate, was blockaded in the Flemish harbors by the 
Dutch. Unable to retire to the southward, the Armada sailed through 
the German Ocean, designing to compass Scotland and Ireland and re- 
turn by the Atlantic ; but a tempest wrecked it ' among the Orkneys, 
and when the shattered remnants of his fleet had all arrived in Spain, 
Philip could count less than half the gallant armament which he had 
sent forth. 

271. The next year the English retaliated by an invasion of Portugal, 
which, though it did not restore Don Antonio to the throne, gained pos- 
session of the suburbs of Lisbon, and of sixty Hanse vessels laden with 
supplies for a new armada. The Spaniards were discouraged from a 
fresh encounter with English bravery. In the Netherlands their move- 
ments were paralyzed by an exhausted treasury, for the soldiers of Parma 
were not only unpaid, but nearly starved, and the duke himself was soon 
ordered by Philip to lead his army into France, where a new state of 
afiairs had been brought about by the accession of Henry IV. Prince 
Maurice, by his wise and victorious generalship, reunited the Seven 
Provinces, overran Flanders and Brabant, and established himself on the 
left banks of the Meuse and Scheldt. Alexander of Parma, to whose 
wonderful genius in war and state-craft Spain owed the preservation of 
the Flemish provinces, died in December, 1592; and was succeeded in 
the Governor-Generalship by the Archduke Ernest, brother of Matthias 
and son of Maximilian II. 



230 MODERN HISTORY. 



John of Austria attempts to pacify tlie Netherlands by a "Perpetual Edict;" gains Na- 
mur by treachery and other fortified places by force. The States choose Matthias as their 
chief; William of Orange his lieutenant. Brief " Union of Brussels " combines the seven- 
teen provinces. English troops have part in the disastrous battle of Gemblours. Alexander 
of Parma succeeds Don John as Governor-General. Duke of Anjou becomes Protector of 
the liberties of the Netherlands. Democratic riots at Ghent infringe the religious peace and 
prevent the ultimate union of all the States. " Union of Utrecht " between the seven prov- 
inces which afterward form the Dutch Republic. Fruitless mediation of Rudolph II. Wal- 
loon provinces return to their allegiance, the Flemish remain in dispute. Ban against the 
Prince of Orange. Abjuration of the authority of Philip II. by the States. Duke of Anjou 
inaugurated as lord of the Netherlands; his treachery; "French Fury" at Antwerp; his 
retirement into France. Death of the Prince of Orange. Elizabeth of England becomes 
protectress of the Netherlands ; Leicester, Governor-General. Death of Sidney at Zutphen. 
Accession of Sixtus V. Execution of Mary Stuart. Ravages of Sir Francis Drake among 
Spanish colonies and marine. " Invincible Armada " defeated by battle and storm. Eng- 
lish invade Portugal. Retirement and death of the Duke of Parma. 



Wars of the League. 

272. In France, the Eighth Religious War broke out in 1585, between 
the forces of the League on one side, and those of tlie King of Navarre, 
the Prince of Conde, and the Dulce of Montmorency, on the other. Henry 
III., though nominally an ally of the League, dreaded its success even 
more than that of the Huguenots. The shallowness of his character was 
more than ever apparent; while his kingdom was torn with fierce dissen- 
sions, he was amusing himself with his dogs, monkeys, and parrots, or 
draining his already exhausted treasury by foolish and fantastic entertain- 
ments. Meanwhile Henry of Navarre gained a great victory over the 
royal troops at Coutras. A large German army was sent into France by 
John Casimir, the prince-palatine, but its leaders were surprised by the 
Duke of Guise in Anneau, and multitudes were killed. The exasperated 
peasantry joined with the duke in harassing their retreat and murdering 
all who fell into their hands. 

273. The chiefs of the League had been forbidden to enter Paris. 
Guise came, nevertheless, and was received by the people with shouts of 
welcome. He had ever been the idol of the populace, and the city was 
now divided into two hostile camps, the Hotel de Guise being guarded by 
the mob as constantly as the Louvre by the royal troops. The advance 
of several thousands of Swiss mercenaries by the king's order, caused a 
general rising in the city, known as the "Day of the Barricades." The 
king escaped in terror to Chartres, and Guise, assuming dictatorial power, 
overawed the parliament, filled all military and civic appointments with 
his own people, and seized and fortified the towns in the neighborhood of 
Paris to prevent surprise. The revolutionarj'^ government thus established 
in the capital continued six years in force. Henry III. was compelled to 



THE LAST OF THE VALOIS. 231 

sign, at Rouen, an Edict of Union, in which he granted -all the demands 
of the League — among the rest an assembly of the States-General, which 
the duke intended should legalize his usurpation of power and place the 
king under his control. 

274. But Henry had resolved to rid himself of this hated guardianship. 

Guise was summoned to the royal bed-chamber, and mur- 

, , n T • . T ^1 X ^ Dec, 1588. 

dered by the guards m an anteroom, in the apartment 
beneath, Catherine de' Medici, the now aged queen-mother, lay dying. 
Henry hastened to her with the words, "Now, Madam, I am a king!" 
Startled by the folly, more, probably, than by the wickedness of his act, 
she was thrown into a state of anxiety which hastened her end. The 
Cardinal of Guise was murdered two days after his brother. 

275. Paris was in an uproar; the Sorbonne — the great ecclesiastical 
authority of the kingdom — ^ declared the people released from their alle- 
giance. The parliament, attempting to quiet the tumult, was impris- 
oned in the Bastile, only those members being subsequently released who 
promised to be the obedient tools of the Council of Sixteen. By this 
fragment of a parliament, the Duke of Mayenne, a brother of Guise, was 
appointed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. Between the Huguenots 
in the south and the League in the north, the wretched king possessed 
only five or six towns on the Loire. The Guises refused to treat with 
him ; the Pope summoned him to Rome to answer for having murdered a 
prince of the Church ; his only refuge was in a treaty with Henry of Na- 
varre. After a personal conference at Plessis-les-Tours, the two kings 
joined their forces for a siege of Paris. Terror increased the fanatical 
rage of the Parisians ; and their priests declared that only the murder of 
one or both the kings could save religion. In this state of feeling, Jacques 
Clement, a Dominican monk, sought the camp of Henry of France, ob- 
tained an audience and stabbed the king. The assassin was immediately 
dispatched by the guards ; his victim expired the ' following morning. 
With Henry III. ended the family of Valois, which had ruled France 
since 1328. 

276. The House of Bourbon, descended from the second son of St. 
Louis, was now nearest to the throne. Its elder branch had been extin- 
guished in the Constable de Bourbon, who died before Rome in 1627 ; the 
younger was represented by Henry of Navarre, to whom Henry III., in 
dying, had commended his army and his people. Five years of civil war 
preceded the establishment of Henry IV. in his kingdom. The obstacles 
to his accession seemed, indeed, insurmountable. He was a Huguenot ; 
he had lately been allied Avith the murderer of the Duke of Guise, whose 
brother Mayenne was at the head of a numerous and well-appointed army. 
No fewer than eight claimants disputed the crown, of whom Philip II., 
the most powerful, possessed the ablest general and the most effective 



232 MODERN HISTORY. 

infantry in the world. He demanded to be named Protector of France 
in the right of his daughter, Clara Eugenia Isabella, who, by her mother's 
side, was a granddaughter of Henry II. To this end he recalled the Duke 
of Parma (§ 271), from the Netherlands in the summer of 1590 — a policy 
fatal to his own interests, but fortunate for the United Provinces, which 
were thus enabled to establish their independence. 

277. Henry IV. had already gained two brilliant victories at Arques 
and Ivjy over the Duke of Mayenne. He might have taken Paris by 
assault, but he refused to sacrifice the lives of his people. The king, 
who had already been twice a Catholic and twice a protestant, and 
probably had no very deep convictions in favor of either side, now re- 
solved upon a change of his ecclesiastical relations, which promised 
to restore peace and harmony to his kingdom. He caused himself to be 
publicly •' instructed " in the Romish faith ; and on the 25th of July, 
1593, he abjured protestantism and received the mass before a great 
assemblage in the cathedral of St. Denis. Two years later he was recon- 
ciled with the Pope. Eheims being in the possession of the League, he was 

crowned at Chartres, and was admitted into Paris the follow- 
ing month, by bribery of Brissac, the commandant. He 
lightly remarked that " so fair a city was well worth a mass ! " 

278. The young Duke of Guise and the Duke of Lorraine made their 
peace, and in January, 1596, a treaty with Mayenne put an end to the 
League. Henry IV. had many of the qualities of a great prince ; he 
could forgive and forget injuries, and his generous confidence was never 
narrowed by jealousy and resentment. Consequently, he was more faith- 
fully served by men who had been his bitterest foes than are many 
kings by their life-long favorites and dependents. To reassure his Hu- 
guenot subjects, alarmed by his defection from their faith, Henry signed, 
in April, 1598, the celebrated Edict of Nantes, by which he guaranteed 
the unobstructed exercise of their religion. They were admitted, equally 
with Catholics, to all colleges, schools, and hospitals, and to all civi) 
offices, without submitting to any oath or ceremony contrary to thei/ 
consciences; and were permitted to publish religious books and fount* 
institutions of learning for their own exclusive patronage. 

279. War was declared (Jan., 1595) between France and Spain ; and 
Spanish armies entered France both from the north and the south. Cam- 
bray was surrendered, Oct. 2, and Calais taken by surprise in Aprily 1596. 
The queen of England, now fearing an invasion of her own dominion, 
hastened to make a treaty with the king of France, in which the Holland- 
ers were included. A great English and Dutch armament fought an . 
obstinate battle with the Spaniards in the harbor of Cadiz, resulting in 
victory to the allies and the destruction of thirty or forty Spanish 
merchantmen. The city and all its wealth was abandoned to the vie- 



PEACE OF VEBVINS. 233 

tors, and though they used their power with moderation, the fleet re- 
turned home with great spoil on board. A similar expedition the next 
year was defeated by a storm, but on the other hand, Philip II., who 
had raised a great armada for a second invasion of England, intending 
to place his favorite daughter upon the throne of Elizabeth, was thwarted 
by the same tempests. The English fleet, which had merely been driven 
back to port, then proceeded to the Azores, where it captured Fayal, 
Graciosa, and Flores, but failed to encounter the treasure-laden galleons 
from Spanish America, which had been the object of the enterprise. 

280. The same year Prince Maurice gained a great victory over the 
Spaniards at Turnhout, chiefly by the then novel device of furnishing his 
cavalry with fire-arms. The town of Amiens, taken soon after by a 
stratagem of the Archduke Albert, was recaptured, in a siege of sev- 
eral months, by the forces of Henry IV. The king of Spain, now drained 
of resources, aged and infirm, consented to a peace with France, 
which the Pope had long been desirous of mediating, in order to direct 
the forces of Christendom against the heretics and the Turks. A treaty 
was signed at Vervins, by which the Spaniards restored all 

° ' '' ^ May, 1598. 

their conquests except the fortress of Cambray. In August 
of the same year the Infanta Isabella was acknowledged as sovereign of 
the Netherlands and Franche Comte. Albert of Austria, her destined 
consort, received an equal share in the government, and, to render their 
dignity identical, both were known as " the Archdukes." 

281. Philip II. died in Spain, Sept. 13, 1598, closing a disastrous reign 
of forty-two years. No prince was ever born to more magnificent pros- 
pects. If his wisdom and justice had been equal to his diligence, his 
vast inheritance Avould have made him by far the greatest monarch in 
Christendom. But he crushed Spain, ruined Portugal, lost a great part 
of the Netherlands and drained the rest of their prosjDcrity, and finally, 
with the wealth of the Indies at his disposal, died a bankrupt. His eldest 
son, Carlos, a youth of unhappy disposition, was driven to madness by his 
father's severity, and died in imprisonment. Philip III., the youngest 
and only surviving son, succeeded to the government of Spain, Portugal, 
the Two Sicilies and the Duchy of Milan. 

282. Few events had taken place in Germany since the accession of 
Rudolph II. In consequence of his Spanish education and the continued 
influence of the Jesuits, he expelled all Lutherans from his hereditary 
dominions; and in Austria and Bavaria there ensued a strong reaction 
toward the ancient Church. The favorite studies of Eudolph were 
alchemy and astrology. By means of the latter, wiser men than he 
were encouraged to more reasonable researches ; for the great astron- 
omers, Kepler and Tycho Brahe, were successively entrusted with the 
superintendence of his observatory at Prague, 



234 MODERN HISTORY. 

283. A singular event, which promised an extension of protestantism 
in Germany, really fixed more firmly the authority of Rome. The Arch- 
bishop elector of Cologne, wishing to marry the beautiful Agnes of Mans- 
feld, renounced the spiritual allegiance to which he owed his dignities, and 
openly adopted the Confession of Augsburg. He intended to secularize 
his province, as the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights had already 
done ; but Prince Ernest of Bavaria, his former rival for the appointment, 
was elected to succeed him ; the protestant princes stood aloof, and the 
deposed elector spent the rest of his days in retirement at Strasbourg. 
For nearly two centuries the important see of Cologne was filled by 
members of the Bavarian family. 

284. War between the Ottoman and German empires was begun by 

the defeat near Sissek of the Turkish governor of Bosnia, in June, 1593. 

Amurath III. immediately raised a great army, which captured Vesprim, 

but was in turn defeated by the Austrians. The next year Moldavia, Wal- 

lachia, and Transylvania revolted from the Turks, and allied themselves 

with the emperor. In his dismay, Amurath sent to Damascus for the holy 

standard which was supposed to insure victory over unbeliev- 
Jan 1595 

■' ' ers ; but he died without having experienced its miraculous 

aid. His son, Mohammed III., secured his own succession with the usual 
barbarity of his race, by the murder of nineteen brothers. The campaign 
of 1595 was disastrous to the Turks. The Austrian army was ably com- 
manded by Count Mansfeld, who took the important town of Gran and 
received the submission of Wissegrad and Waitzen. 

285. The next year Mohammed in person took the field. He captured 
Erlau, and, by a three days' battle at Keresztes, defeated the Christians, 
who lost 50,000 men, beside 100 guns and all their treasure. Terror seized 
Vienna and spread through Europe. But the Turks neglected to reap the 
fruits of their victory, and though the war continued ten years longer, its 
events were of too little importance to require detailed narration. The 
Ottoman dominion, though still among the most extensive that the world 
had seen, had passed the zenith of its power and had begun to decline. 

The Peace of Sitvatorok was remarkable for the abatement 

Jan. 1, 1607. . ^ , -r. -r. 

it showed in the extravagant pretensions of the Porte. Ru- 
dolph II. was named with his full imperial titles instead of being slight- 
ingly alluded to as " King of Vienna ;" and, in consideration of a large 
immediate payment, he was relieved of the degrading annual tribute 
hitherto exacted by the Turks. The territorial limits of the two empires 
remained nearly as in 1597. 

286. At the end of the sixteenth century, France was the greatest, 
richest, and most populous kingdom in Europe, and Paris was, with the 
exception of Moscow, the largest capital. Venice had, even then, more 
inhabitants than London ; but both Venice and Milan had for four cen- 



FIEST OF THE BOVBBON DYNASTY. 235 

turies been stationary, if not declining. Under Elizabeth, England rose 
as rapidly in the scale of European powers as Spain, during the same 
period, declined. The persecutions in the Netherlands added almost as 
much to the wealth of Elizabeth's dominions as they detracted from 
those of Philip II. Weavers and other artisans were encouraged to 
settle in her cities on condition of taking one English apprentice each ; 
and thus fine manufactures became permanently implanted in the coun- 
try. Commerce was opened by special treaties with Turkey, Eussia, and 
through the latter country with India, Persia, and Cathay or China. 
The Eussia Company was incorporated by act of Parliament in 1566, 
the Turkey or Levant Company in 1581, and the far more important 
East India Company on the last day of 1600. 

287. The Dutch Eepublic was already the chief maritime nation in 
Europe. Its prosperity had indeed been augmented by immigration 
from the still oppressed provinces to the southward; so that new towns 
had to be built or new streets added to the old ones, to accommodate 
the manufacturers and merchants from Brabant and Flanders. In the 
latter countries villages, and even towns, were depopulated ; foxes, wolves, 
and wild boars prowled over the land once occupied by a thriving 
population ; and during one year, 1586-7, two hundred persons were 
killed by wild beasts in the immediate neighborhood of Ghent. As 
their commercial marine increased, the Dutch planted trading stations 
in the remotest parts of the world — along the Asiatic coasts from Bas- 
sora in the Persian Gulf to Japan, and especially upon the island of Java, 
where Batavia became the metropolis of their eastern possessions. 

Renewed wars of the League in France. Duke of Guise in possession of Paris. His 
assassination by order of Henry III. Death of Catherine de' Medici. Mayenne lieutenant- 
general. Murder of Henry III. and extinction of the Valois. Opposition to Henry IV. 
who, nevertheless, is victorious at Arques and Ivry, is crowned at Chartres, "buys Paris 
with a mass," and puts an end to the League. Edict of Nantes guarantees the rights of 
the Huguenots. War with Spain ; victories of the Dutch and English. Peace of Vervins 
interrupts the long series of Franco-Spanish wars. Establishment of the "Archdukes" in 
the Spanish Netherlands. Death of Philip II. Superstitions of Rudolph II. Archbishop 
of Cologne, renouncing his connection with Rome, vainly attempts to hold his province 
as a secular principality. War with the Turks ; the Christians mainly victorious during 
the first three years ; terribly defeated at Keresztes, but favored by the Peace of Sitva- 
torok. Of the nations of Europe at close of 16th century, France most powerful ; England 
rapidly rising, especially in commercial importance; Spain declining; Holland already 
the chief maritime power. Desolation of the Flemish provinces ; increasing prosperity 
of the Dutch. 

Eeign of Henry IV. in France. 

288. During the unworthy reign of the last of the Valois, France had 
almost fallen into chaos. Ii^stead of the ancient feudal chiefs, a new 



236 MODERN HISTORY. 

class of nobles rivaled and opposed the crown. The heads of the League 
had been won by fortresses, governments, and money, and often assumed 
in their own territories powers exceeding those of the king himself. 
Multitudes of strong castles defied the royal authority. Manufactures 
bad decayed ; roads were so bad that merchandise could only be trans- 
ported by long and circuitous routes, and so haunted by banditti that 
fraudulent debtors could always elude payment by pretending to have 
been robbed. Henry IV. and his wise and faithful minister, the Duke 
of Sully, set themselves to correct the abuses and to restore the prosperity 
of the country. The king in his own dress and equipage presented an 
example of moderation, and to avoid the extravagance and frivolous ri- 
valries of a court, the nobles were recommended to live upon their estates. 
Manufactures were liberally fostered by the government, and the unri- 
valed fame of the French for the production of fine and curious fabrics 
dates from the reign of Henry IV. The revenues of the kingdom were 
doubled during the twelve years following his accession, while the public 
debt was diminished one-third. 

289. By the Pope's dispensation, Henry dissolved his uncongenial mar- 
riage with Margaret of Valois, and married Marie de' Medici, daughter 
of the Grand-duke of Tuscany. A leading motive in his policy was hos- 
tility to the House of Austria; and the compactness of his dominion, and 
the consequent availability of his resources made him a formidable foe to 
the enfeebled power of Spain. In spite of the treaty of Vervins, which 
was outwardly observed, large sums of money and whole regiments of 
recruits passed from France to Holland. A formidable rebellion of the 
French nobles, fomented by the Duke of Savoy and the king of Spain, 

broke out during the year of the royal marriage. It was 

A. D. 1602. ; . 

proposed to kill the king and make of France an elective 

monarchy like Germany, each of the great nobles becoming a sovereign 

prince in his own dominions. The chief mover was Marechal Biron, the 

first of the Catholic peers who had attached himself to Henry IV., but 

whose ambition had not been satisfied by his elevation to a dukedom, a 

marshal's baton, and the government of Burgundy. 

290. Unconscious of the conspiracy at home, Henry declared war 
against Savoy and intrusted the conquest of La Bresse to the treacher- 
ous Biron. The king gained a speedy victory, and before the end of 
the year Charles Emanuel was compelled to buy peace with the cession 
of nearly all his territories west of the Alps. Biron, dismayed by the 
humiliation of his ally, made a full confession of his treason. The king 
generously pardoned him, and even intrusted him with several diplomatic 
missions ; but Biron renewed his treasonable practices, was convicted and 
sentenced by the parliament of Paris, and beheaded, July, 1602. 

The recall of the Jesuits in 1603, and the king's evident desire to stand 



BEIGN OF HENRY IV. IN FRANCE. 237 

well with the Pope, alienated the Huguenots. Their leader, the Duke of 
Bouillon, even made overtures to Spain. His capital, Sedan, was there- 
upon seized by the royal forces and occupied during four years. The 
king, however, either through natural leniency or the fear of offending 
the German protestant princes, pardoned the duke and reinstated him in 
all his offices and honors. 

291. A favorite scheme of Henry IV., or rather, perhaps, of Sully, was 
the union of all the nations of Europe into a great Christian common- 
wealth, where minor differences of faith should be tolerated, all dis- 
putes settled by arbitration, and commerce freed from those vexatious 
restrictions which then paralyzed enterprise in the southern countries. 
This great confederation was to consist of fifteen states, divided into 
three groups, viz.: (1) Six Elective Monarchies, comprising the Empire, 
the States of the Church, Venice, Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland ; (2) 
Six Hereditary Kingdoms — France, Spain, Great Britain, Denmark, 
Sweden, and Lombardy — the latter to be formed of the two duchies 
of Savoy and Milan ; (3) Three Federal Eepublics, Switzerland, the 
Netherlands, and a confederation of Italian states. The Czar of Mus- 
covy was considered as belonging, by his mode of government, rather 
to Asia than to Europe, but he was to be admitted to the commonwealth 
on his own application. If this scheme appears too visionary to be even 
detailed at such length, it was at least more noble than the plan of uni- 
versal monarchy pitrsued by Charles V. and Philip II. — a monarchy 
based upon the suppression of all freedom of thought and enterprise. 

292. A preliminary object with Henry was the humiliation of the 
House of Austria in all its branches. To this end he aided the protest- 
ants in Germany and Holland, recommended the Pope to add the two 
Sicilies to. the States of the Church, and renouncing the French claims 
upon Italy, aimed to deliver the peninsula from all foreign dominion. He 
also intrigued with the oppressed Moriscoes; but the edict of Philip III., 
exiling them from Spain, defeated his plan of cooperation in a grand re- 
volt. It is difficult to conceive the distress attending the forced emigra- 
tion of an entire people. The export of gold from Spain was strictly 
prohibited, so that the greater part of their property was sacrificed in the 
removal. Of 130,000 who embarked for Africa, three-fourths perished 
of hunger and exhaustion ; 100,000 sought refuge in France, but were 
permitted to remain only on condition of their professing the Catholic 
faith, which they had just rejected in their own country. While waiting 
for transportation, so many died and were thrown into the sea that the 
fishes were supposed to be poisoned. Philip III. had given the fatal blow 
to the prosperity of his dominions. Leagues of fertile fields, once rich in 
the Olive and the vine, lay waste for want of tillage, and Spain never re- 
covered the loss of the persecuted Moriscoes. 



2oS MODEBN HISTORY. 

2{)3. The Outcli Republic, exteiuling- ami eoiitinwing its power, hiul, in 
the meantime, been able to intliot severe blows upon the Spanish domin- 
ion. Mauriee of Nassau defeated the army of the "Arelulukes" before 
Nieuport anil ea|>rured t'rom them 100 standards, with all their artillery 
and baggage. The siege of Ostend by Albert lasted nearly 
four years, and was attended by all the remarkable inci- 
deiitii of warfare in that amphibious eountry. A formidable as-sault of 
the Spaniards was defeated by the opening of the sluices and the drown- 
ing of a multitude of the assailants. The Spaniards were nnnforced in 
Ui02 by the celebrated Genoese general, Ambrose Spiuola, and 8,000 men; 
while the Hollanders received from Queen Elizabeth tJ.OOO men. under Sir 
Franeis Vere. 

The great queen died before the siege was concluded, though she had 
lived to see the close of a rebellion in Ireland, which the Spaniards had 
fomented to withdraw her attcntii>n from the Netherlands. Her death 
was a severe loss to the protestants of Europe, to whom, in spite of her 
inconsistencies, she had been a powerful protectress. Her successor, James 
I., held, if possible, a still more obstinate belief in the divine right of 
hereditary monarchs, which made him look upon the Dutch as traitors 
smd rebels. The siege of Ostend, whit'h had cost the lives of 100,000 men, 
ended Sept. 20, 1004. with the surrender of the city. The Hollanders had 
partly consoled themselves before its fall by capturing Sluys and all the 
ships in its harbor. 

294. A large party in Holland, headed by the Grand Pensionary, Olden 
Barne veldt, now desired peace, though all Avere agreed not to treat with 
Spain except upon a basis of the independence of the United Provinces. 
A truce of eight months on land was arranged in the spring of 1G07, but 
the Dutch admiral Heemskirk was sent from Amsterdam with a formida- 
ble fleet to harass the coasts of Spain and Portugal, and protect Dutch 
ships returning from the Indies. He gained a great victory in the Bay 
of Gibraltar and destroyed almost the entire Spanish fleet. Both com- 
mandei's were slain, but the Dutch fleet was scarcely injured, and was 
speedily able to intercept the treasure-ships and merchantmen from Amer- 
ica. The king of Spain was compelled to beg a tr\ice from the " Beg- 
gars of the Sea," but he refused to treat with them except as his sub- 
jects, and signed his agreement, "I, the king," without the Great Seal, 
which was indispensable in all treaties with foreign powers. 

2{)5. At length, by the mediation of France and England, a twelve 

years' truce was signed at Bergen-op-Zoom, ending forty years' war for 

. ., the independence of the United Provinces. The possession 

April, 1609. "^ '^ 

of the IMoluccas and the privilege of trade with both 
Indies was secured to ]the Dutch. Their home-boundaries were enlarged 
by the addition of all Dutch Flanders, of several important towns 



WAR FOll THE (HjKVK DlKnilKS. 289 

on the frontiers of Brabant, and by forts which gave them the com- 
mand of the Scheldt. Forty years more elapsed before their independ- 
ence was acknowledged by Spain, but it was virtually secured by the 
long struggle already so brav(!ly maintained. 

2{)0. The emperor Kudolph II. had alienated most of his subjects by 
his gloomy bigotry. Bohemia was full of discontent; Moravia was in 
open revolt. Hungary and Austria were already under the government 
of Matthias, the heir-presumptive of his brother's dominions, who, by his 
German education, was more acceptable than Kudolph to tlu; vast major- 
ity of the people. A revolutionary act signed in April, 1600, by the 
emperor's three brothers, Matthias, Albert, and Maximilian, and their 
cousins, Ferdinand and Leopold of Styria, declared Matthias to be the 
head of the House of Hapsburg in consequence of the alleged insanity 
of lludolph. Two years were spent in fruitless negotiations before the 
brothers appealed to arms. Matthias marched a body of troops into 
Bohemia, and a treaty was signed near Prague which made him king 
of Hungary in full sovereignty and immediate possession; while, by 
the consent of the Boliemian estates, he was entitled King-elect of that 
country. The parliaments of both countries asserted their religious 
rights with great boldness, and in spite of long opposition, both sov- 
ereigns, Rudolph in Bohemia and Matthias in Hungary, were compelled 
to sign charters oi' complete and universal toleration. 

297. In Styria and Bavaria, meanwhile, the counter-reformation was 
proceeding with great energy under Archduke Ferdinand and Duke 
Maximilian. They were cousins, had been educated together by the 
Jesuits, and were yet to be more conspicuously associated in ihe Thirty 
Years' War — that great contest which filled nearly the first half of the 
seventeenth century with blood and desolation. The aggression of Maxi- 
milian upon Donauwerth — a free imperial city, but anciently claimed by 
the dukes of Bavaria — led to an Act of Union between the 
chief protestant princes, joined eventually by fifteen cities 
and strengthened by an alliance with France in the Treaty of Halle, 1610. 
It was retaliated by the Holy League, which included the Catholic princes 
of the Circles of Bavaria and Suabia, and the three archbishop electors, 
subsequently aided by the Pope and the king of Spain. 

208. The death, in 1609, of the Duke of Jiiliers, Cleves, and Berg, who 
had no heir, precipitated the contest between the two religious parties. 
The emperor bestowed the reversion of the duchies on Christian II. of 
Saxony, but placed them under the immediate control of his cousin, Leo- 
pold of Styria. I'he Elector of Brandenburg and the Count-palatine of 
Neuburg, each of whom had married a sister of the deceased duke, took 
joint possession of the territories with the encouragement and aid of the 
king of France. The Dutch entered warmly into the affair, hoping to 



240 MODERN HISTORY. 

secure the ten remaining provinces of the Netherlands ; the kings of Eng- 
land and Denmark declared themselves allies of the protestant princes. 

299. The French king and his minister desired above all to wrest the 
imperial scepter from the House of Austria. Great preparations were 
made; Henry IV. was ready to march into the Netherlands at the head 

of 30,000 men. But on the eve of his intended departure, 
he was assassinated by a frantic Jesuit in a street of Paris. 
His queen, Marie de' Medici, was made regent, in the name and during 
the minority of her son, Louis XIII. The opposition of the nearest 
princes of the blood, Conde and his two uncles, was bought oflf for a time 
with the ample treasures collected by the murdered king for his wars. 
The Duke of Sully, though called to the Council-board by the queen- 
regent, encountered such resistance from the rapacious courtiers who 
hated his thrifty policy, that he retired, in 1611, never to return to court. 
His remaining thirty years were spent upon his estates, and he lived to 
see some of his far-reaching plans executed by Richelieu, the famous 
cardinal and minister of Louis XIII. 

300. The treaty of Halle was maintained by the new Council, and the 
lieutenant of the Archduke Leopold, after holding out several moaths in 
hope of profiting by the death of Henry IV., surrendered the city of 
Jiiliers, Sept. 4, 1610. The princes of Neuberg and Brandenburg held 
the disputed terjritories at first in common — the one holding court at 
Diisseldorf, the other at Cleves ; but dissensions naturally arising from 
this double government, war broke out in 1621, during which the Span- 
iards on one side, and the Dutch on the other, made these lands their 
battle-field. Though two partition-treaties were signed, the question of 
ownership was not finally set at rest until 1815, when the "Cleve-Duch- 
ies " were secured by the Congress of Vienna to the House of Branden- 
burg, and became the nucleus of West Prussia. The elector-palatine, 
Frederic IV., died during the same month with the surrender of Juliers, 
and was succeeded by his minor son, Frederic V., a prince who is cele- 
brated in German history chiefly for his misfortunes. He was educated 
at Sedan, the capital of the Duke of Bouillon — then, next to Geneva, 
the main stronghold of Calvinism. The Duke of Zweibriicken, his 
guardian, became a director of the Protestant Union. 

301. In France the establishment of the new government was followed 
by a complete change of politics and a close alliance with Spain. The 
young king was married to Anne of Austria, Infanta of Spain, and his 
■eldest sister to Philip, the heir of that monarchy. This alliance of the 
leading Catholic powers occasioned a. closer consolidation of the protest- 
ant influence, and thus hastened the impending conflict. The policy of 
the court was to intimidate the Huguenots, who were too numerous to 
be won by gifts and pensions. They possessed 200 fortified places, num- 



REIGN OF LOUIS XIII. IN FRANCE. 241 

bered 4,000 of the nobility in their ranks, and could bring into the field 
an army of 25,000 men. 

The queen-regent granted one demand of the Prince of Conde by 
summoning the States-General at Paris, A. D. 1614. This assembly was 
marked by the first appearance of Richelieu, the young Bishop of Lufon, 
as deputy from the clergy of Poitou, Fontenay, and Niort; and his elo- 
quent speech in the interest of his order laid the foundation of his futur^ 
favor at court. The Third Estate, or commons, having offended the queen, 
were ignominiously dismissed, and forbidden ever to meet again. Their 
next assembly, in 1789, was an immediate cause of the great revolution. 

302. The councils of Marie de' Medici were controlled by her Italian 
favorite, Concini, and his wife Leonora. The former bore the title of 
Mar6chal d'Ancre. Perceiving the talents of Eichelieu, the marshal 
caused him to be named secretary of state, thinking thus to secure a 
useful instrument ; but the bishop, as soon as he felt the ground firm 
beneath his feet, quarreled with Concini and separated from his party. 
A more dangerous enemy to the marshal was the Sieur de Luines, the 
king's falconer, a man of dull and insignificant mind, but of great influ- 
ence with Louis. The king, now sixteen years of age, was beginning to 
act in resistance to the queen-mother ; and the two parties at court were 
led respectively by the two favorites. Luines obtained a 

royal order for the arrest of the marshal, and caused him to > '■ 

be murdered on his way to the palace. The king, regarding the scene 
from a window, cried aloud, " Thank you, good friends ! I am now a 
king!" He dismissed the Council appointed by the queen, and recalled 
his father's old ministers, except Sully. The queen was exiled to Blois; 
Leonora d'Ancre was tried for witchcraft and put to death. The new 
Council, like the old, favored the House of Austria, aud its policy has- 
tened the religious war in Germany. 

303. The unhappy disputes of sectaries, which had already so weakened 
and compromised the Reformation, were renewed in Holland between the 
Calvinists and the new sect of Arminians. The latter included many of 
the best minds, in the States, among others the noble patriot and Grand 
Pensionary, Olden Barne veldt, and Hugo Grotius, the celebrated jurist. 
The worst blot on the record of Maurice of Nassau is his agency in the 
death of Barneveldt. They belonged to opposite political parties; the 
aged statesman apprehended danger to his country from the soaring am- 
bition of the young prince. No man, except William of Orange, had done 
so much for the freedom of Holland as Olden Barneveldt. The Calvin- 
istic Synod of Dort condemned the Arminians without a hearing, and 
banished or deposed their pastors. Barneveldt and Grotius were arraigned 
before a council of their enemies and condemned — the one to death, the 
■other to perpetual imprisonment. Barneveldt scorned to ask his life from 

M. H.— 16. 



242 MODERN HISTORY. 

the son of his old friend ; Maurice, who could have saved it, would not 
interfere; and Barneveldt was beheaded, May 14, 1619. 

Henry IV. remedies the disorders and promotes the prosperity of France ; marries Marie 
de' Medici ; is a constant foe to the House of Austria ; defeats the Duke of Savoy, and the 
rebellions of Biron and Bouillon. Great scheme of Henry for the union and pacification of 
Europe. Final expulsion of the Moriscoes from Spain. Victories of the Dutch ; fall of 
Ostend, capture of Sluys. Death of Elizabeth. Peace of Bergen-op-Zoom secures impor- 
tant benefits to Holland. 

Discontent in the dominions of Rudolph II. ; Matthias is acknowledged chief of the 
House of Austria. Counter-reformation in Styria and Bavaria. Protestant "Act of Union," 
and " Holy League " of German Catholic nobles. War for the Cleve-Duchies involves 
not only Germany, but Holland, France, England, and Denmark. Assassination of Henry 
IV. ; regency of Marie de' Medici ; retirement of SuUy. Fall of Jtiliers. Accession of Fred- 
eric v., elector-palatine. Close alliance of France and Spain. States-General summoned in 
France; rise of Richelieu. Rival parties in the French court; murder of Concini; ban- 
ishment of Marie de' Medici. Religious dissensions in Holland ; execution of Olden 
Barneveldt. 

The Thirty Years' War. 

304. The weak and incompetent Rudolph II. died early in 1612, and 
his brother Matthias, already crowned king of Hungary and Bohemia, 
became emperor in his place. The alliance of Holland with the Protest- 
ant Union of Germany made the latter far stronger than the Holy 
League, which was, indeed, paralyzed by divisions in the imperial family 
and by the withdrawal of the three archbishop electors. Instead of the 
Jesuits, who had ruled Rudolph II., Cardinal Klesel now controlled the 
court ; while the new emperor contented neither party, but was regarded 
with increasing distrust by all. The dispute concerning the Cleve-Duchies 
has already been described. Still more serious disturbances occurred in 
Bohemia. The imperial line of the House of Hapsburg had so evidently 
fallen into decay, that the brothers of Matthias resigned all claim to the 
succession ; and their cousin, the able and ambitious Ferdinand of Styria, 
was- crowned in Bohemia, with the consent of the king of Spain. 

305. A formidable revolt was organized by Count Thurn, who sum- 
marily dismissed the council of King Ferdinand by throwing its three 
most obnoxious members from a window of the Castle of Prague. A new 
government of thirty directors was then organized, and a movement was 
made toward alliance with the protestant party in Austria, Hungary, and 
Germany. Count Mansfeld was sent to its aid by the young elector-pala- 
tine, and laid the foundation of his great military fame by the capture 
of Pilsen, one of the three towns which alone remained to Ferdinand. The 
two armies raised by the latter were both defeated by Count Thurn, and 
the one commanded by the Flemish general Bucquoi was pursued into 
Austria and deprived of all its plunder. The Austrians refused to arm 



WAB FOB BOHEMIA. 243 

in the emperor's service, or even to permit his reinforcements to pass 
through their territories. 

306. Matthias died suddenly in 1619, and Ferdinand succeeded to all 
his dominions. In the war which followed his accession, Albert von 
Wallenstein, the greatest general of the age, first emerged into distinc- 
tion. He was Bohemian by birth but German by descent, and had been 
educated at Padua, then one of the most renowned universities of Europe. 
Here he became imbued with that belief in the mystical science of the 

• stars, which exercised so great an influence over his subsequent career. 
The army of Thurn, after the death of Matthias, overran Moravia, and, 
entering Austria, appeared before the walls of Vienna, where Ferdinand 
n. was surrounded by all the chief estates of his dominions. 

The moment was critical ; with prompt resolution the city might have 
been taken, and the supremacy of the House of Hapsburg destroyed. But 
a detachment from the army of Dampierre succeeded in penetrating the 
capital with aid to the emperor, while Thurn was recalled by the news 
that Bucquoi, having conquered Mansfeld, was threatening Prague. The 
imperial election of Ferdinand had just been accomplished at Frankfort, 
when news arrived that the Bohemian nation had cast off its allegiance to 
him and had chosen Frederic, the elector-palatine, to be its king. Against 
the warnings of his wisest friends, including the whole electoral college, 
Frederic accepted the dangerous promotion — moved chiefly by the persua- 
sions of his former tutor, Prince Christian of Anhalt, and of his wife, the 
English princess Elizabeth, who declared that she would rather starve at 
the table of a king than feast at that of an elector. He was crowned 
at Prague Nov. 4, 1619. 

307. But the friends of Frederic were few, and absorbed in their own 
afiairs. His father-in-law, King James of England, was Aveak, vacillating, 
and disinclined to war. Prince Maurice of Nassau, though the most de- 
termined foe of the House of Austria, was wholly occupied with the gov- 
ernment of Holland. Bethlem Gabor, Waywode of Transylvania, though 
at first the most active of the protestant allies, soon made a separate truce 
with the emperor. Vienna was a second time besieged by 

a Bohemian and Transylvanian army of 80,000 men ; but 

want of supplies compelled them to retire, after 2,000 had died of actual 

starvation. 

308. Frederic, by his lack of energy and dignity, proved his own worst 
enemy. He allowed his favorite court-chaplain to oflend the religious 
preferences of the Bohemians in the rudest manner; while their army 
was no less incensed by seeing its own able leaders, counts Thurn and 
Mansfeld, outranked by Christian of Anhalt and Count Hohenlohe, who 
had accompanied the king from Heidelberg. On the other hand, Spain, 
the Jesuits, and the German League, were working actively for Ferdi- 



244 MODERN HISTORY 

nand II. By French mediation, a treaty was concluded at Ulm between 
the League and the Union, which, in the war for Bohemia, gave all the 
advantage to the former. Peace was concluded between all the German 
states, but both parties permitted the passage of troops across their terri- 
tories into Bohemia; and as the "i^rchdukes" of the Netherlands were 
not included in the peace, nothing prevented their Spanish forces from 
invading the Palatinate. 

309. In August, 1620, Maximilian of Bavaria, at the head of the army 
of the League, entered Bohemia, and Avas joined by Count Bucquoi; their 
united armies then numbered 32,000 men, who were opposed by scarcely 
more than 20,000 on the part of Frederic. Next in command to Max- 
imilian was Count Tilly, a ferocious character, whose fame among the 
German leaders is only second to that of Wallenstein. The Spaniards, 
under Spinola, were, meanwhile, ravaging the borders of the Rhine; the 
elector of Saxony, by occupying Lusatia for the emperor, cut off Fred- 
eric's hope of relief from that quarter; and the king of Poland sent 8,000 
Cossacks to reinforce the imperial army. With firmness and good man- 
agement, Frederic might even yet have saved his kingdom ; but Mans- 
feld, his best general, was alienated by ill treatment, and the attack of 
the imperialists upon the forces under the Prince of Anhalt, at Weisse 

Berg near Prague, resulted in a sudden and complete 
rout. All was lost ; the king and queen could neither trust 
the Bohemians whom they had offended, nor return to their rightful sov- 
ereignty, the Palatinate, which they had so rashly abandoned in grasping 
at a higher dignity. Forced to flee from Prague, they took refuge in 
Silesia, and afterward in Holland. 

310. Ferdinand II., now established in all his dominions, avenged his 
insulted dignity with great and wanton severity. Not only were all prot- 
estant teachers banished from Bohemia, and all acts of toleration revoked, 
but the people were insulted by the demolition of the tombs and burning 
of the bones of the reformers. Thirty thousand families emigrated from 
the kingdom ; but multitudes held fast in secret their reformed faith ; 
and when, after the lapse of 150 years, religious freedom was at length 
proclaimed, the government was surprised by the number who declared 
themselves protestants. In Upper and Lower Austria all dissent from the 
established worship was suppressed by similar means. 

311. The two years' war for the Palatinate was ended with its conquest 
by Tilly, and its transfer, with the electoral title, to Maximilian of Ba- 
varia. The Heidelberg libraiy, then among the richest in Europe for its 
rare collection of MSS., was partly used instead of straw to stable the 
horses of Tilly's cavalry ; but a part was sent by Maximilian to the Pope, 
and for 200 years was known among the treasures of the Vatican as the 
Palatine Library. 



VASA DYNASTY IN SWEDEN. 245 

During the same years war had been raging between Turkey and 
Poland. The Poles were defeated with great loss at Jassy, 
in Moldavia, Sept., 1620 ; but the young sultan, Othman II., 
presuming on this victory to attempt the conquest of Poland, lost, the 
next year, 80,000 men in an unsuccessful battle and a disastrous cam- 
paign. He was murdered by his Janizaries at the age of eighteen, after 
a reign of four years, 1622. His imbecile uncle, Mustapha, was dragged 
from a dungeon to be placed upon the throne ; but he was replaced in 
a year by Amurath IV., a younger brother of Othman. 

312. It is time for a view of the northern kingdoms, which, from their 
slowly dawning civilization, had hitherto exerted little influence, and 
formed no part of the States-System of central and southern Europe. 
Near the close ot the fourteenth century, Denmark, Sweden, 

and Norway, were joined by the Union of Calmar under 
the sway of Margaret Waldemar. Each kingdom continued to be gov- 
erned by its own laws, but all united in the choice of one sovereign, 
and for the common defense. Eric, the grand-nephew and successor of 
Margaret, lost his kingdoms after a turbulent reign of 27 years, and ended 
his life as a pirate. After nearly twenty years' separation, Christian of 
Oldenburg reunited the three realms, and added to them 
Schleswig and Holstein, which he had inherited from an 
uncle. He was succeeded by his son John, who, though acknowledged 
in Sweden, never really ruled that country, for its government was ad- 
ministered by native nobles. 

313. Christian II., the son of John, married a sister of the emperor 
Charles V., and made extensive alliances with other European powers, 
with a view to the conquest of Sweden. He obtained possession of Stock- 
holm (Oct., 1520), and was acknowledged king under the terms of the 
Union of Calmar ; but he treated his now reconciled and obedient sub- 
jects with a barbarity which well earned him the title, " The Nero of the 
North." Eighty or a hundred citizens were beheaded without trial in 
the market-place at Stockholm; and the city was given up to the rage 
and covetousness of his soldiery, as if it had been taken by assault. These 
crimes worked their own retribution by rousing in the people a spirit of 
revenge, which ultimately drove Christian from his throne. 

314-. The revolt in Sweden was led by Gustavus Vasa, a young noble- 
man Avhose father had been beheaded at Stockholm. He himself had been 
given, with four others, as hostages for the safe return of Christian to his 
ships, after a battle which he lost at Brankirka, in one of his early and 
vain attempts upon the kingdom. Contrary to his agreement. Christian 
no sooner found himself in safety than he sailed away with his hostages 
and kept them as prisoners in Denmark. Gustavus escaped in 1519, dis- 
guised as an ox-driver, and hid himself among the peasants of Dalecarlia, 



246 MODERN HISTORY. 

wearing their coarse apparel and working with them for daily wages. 
At length by a secret intelligence among the patriots of Sweden, an army 
of 5,000 men was raised, and Gustavus was placed at its head. The 
Hanse-towns, which had been injured by the commercial policy of Chris- 
tian II., declared for the Swedes and ravaged the Danish islands. Den- 
mark now discarded Christian II., and accepted as its king his uncle, 
Frederic I. The Union of Calmar was dissolved. Stockholm surrendered 
to Gustavus Vasa, after a two years' siege, and he was 

A. D. 1523. 1 

elected king by the Swedish Diet. He favored the Lu- 
theran reformation ; and the change of state-religion was quietly effected 
by the Diet in 1527. Convents were broken up, and the incomes of the 
bishoprics, which happened to be all vacant but two, were either distrib- 
uted among the nobles or applied to public uses. 

315. The exiled king, Christian II., at length raised an army of nearly 
10,000 men in the Netherlands, and invaded Norway in 1531. He was 
besieged at Opslo by a Danish fleet and a Swedish army; and having 
consented to be conveyed to Denmark in order to treat in person with 
his uncle, he was there condemned to perpetual imprisonment, in which 
state he passed the remaining twenty-six years of his life. Frederic I. 
was succeeded, in 1534, by his son Christian III., who made good his claim 
against the Count of Oldenburg with the aid of the king of Sweden. His 
son, Frederic II., was elected during his father's life-time, and succeeded 
peaceably to the throne of Denmark and Norway in 1559. His long and 
prosperous reign of 41 years was celebrated by the progress of arts and 
sciences, which now first found a congenial home in Denmark. His fav- 
orite astronomer, Tycho Brahe, founded an observatory at Uranienborg, 
which has rendered illustrious service to the science of the stars. 

316. Gustavus Vasa, after raising Sweden to great prosperity, died in 
1560; and — the kingdom having been made hereditary in his line — was 
succeeded by his son, Eric IV. This prince being subject to fits of in- 
sanity, his three younger brothers, John, Magnus, and Charles, were asso- 

ciated in the government. The first of these obtained the 
crown and kept Eric in prison, until, at the end of eight 
years, he caused him to be poisoned. Denmark, at this time, possessed 
the whole of Norway and the seven southern provinces of Sweden. John, 
by the treaty of Stettin, recognized the right of Frederic II. to these 
territories. 

317. The Swedish king had married Catherine, heiress of the ancient 
Polish family of Jagellon, and in 1587 their son Sigismund was elected 
king of Poland, This vast kingdom possessed no power proportional to its 
territorial extent; for the yet unsettled conflict between the elective 
and hereditary principles in its monarchy, the violent feuds of its great 
nobles, and the lingering traces of its late barbaric condition kept it a 



A CCESSION OF G USTA VUS ADOLPH US. 247 

continual prey to civil wars. At the death, of John III. in 1592, his 
brother Charles became the rival of Sigismund as a candidate for the 
Swedish crown. He was supported by strong motives both of civil and 
religious policy ; for the Polish king, like his mother, was under the con- 
trol of the Jesuits ; and, moreover, the Swedes as well as the Poles, re- 
quired their sovereign to live constantly among them. The dispute of 
many years resulted in the establishment of Charles IX. as 
king-elect, and his son Gustavus Adolphus as Crown Prince 
of Sweden. The latter served his apprenticeship in the art of war in a 
contest with the young Danish king, Christian IV., which began a few 
months before the death of King Charles. The Swede was to become not 
only a master in military science, but the inventor of a new system "of 
army organization, which in time superseded the closely serried ranks of 
the Swiss pikemen and the Spanish lancers. 

318. Several causes of complaint had existed between the two kings 
for years — among the rest, that each bore three crowns upon his shield. 
Christian IV., at the age of twenty-five, was a successful and powerful 
monarch. His diligent attention to business, and his personal intelligence 
in all matters pertaining to the interests of his kingdom, afforded a pleas- 
ing contrast to the frivolous character of the kings who, at that time, 
filled most of the European thrones. Gustavus Adolphus had been no 
less thoroughly trained to the duties of his station. Becoming king in 
the autumn of 1611, when not quite seventeen years of age, he chose for 
his chief minister Axel Oxenstierna, a man of profound wisdom and good 
judgment, the model of a statesman and diplomatist, and for a long 
series of years the prime mover in Swedish affairs. 

319. The war with the Danes was ended (Jan., 1613) by the mediation 
of England, but another conflict with Eussia had already broken out. 
The line of Euric (see Book I, § 93) had become extinct, and a party in 
the kingdom desired to place a brother of Gustavus upon the vacant 
throne. Some advantages were gained by the Swedes, but a majority of 
the Eussians succeeded in maintaining the right of Michael Eomanoff, 
ancestor of the present imperial family. By the Peace of 

Stolbova, the ground where St. Petersburg now stands was 
included in the territory of Sweden. A third war of nine years with 
Poland now demanded the attention of Gustavus Adolphus. It resulted 
in a gain to Sweden of some important towns ; but of more value were 
the discipline and experience which enabled the young king to assume 
his place as the great leader of the protestant armies in the Thirty 
Years' War. 

Matthias succeeds Rudolph II. as emperor, but the power of the Hapsburgs is soon trans- 
ferred to the Styrian branch of the family. Ferdinand II. crowned successively in Bo- 



248 ^ MODERN HISTORY. 

hernia, Hungary, and the Empire. Bohemia revolts, and chooses Frederic V., elector- 
palatine, to be its king. Vienna twice besieged by insurgent armies. By Pacification of 
Ulm, the German states secure their own peace and leave Bohemia to its fate. Decisive 
victory of the imperiaUsts at Weisse Berg, near Prague. Frederic loses both kingdom and 
palatinate, the latter being conferred upon MaximiUan of Bavaria. Suppression of religious 
rights by Ferdinand II. The three Scandinavian kingdoms usually under one crown, from 
A. D. 1397 to 1523, when Gustavus Vasa becomes king of Sweden, Frederic I. of Denmark 
and Norway. Reformed religion established in all three kingdoms. Frederic II. of Den- 
m.ark patronizes astronomical science. Sweden united for a time with Poland under Sigis- 
mund II., but his uncle, Charles IX., gains the former kingdom. His son, Gustavus 
Adolphus becomes a great general by early experience of war and is chosen by the German 
protestants to be their leader. 



Affairs of France. 

320. A dispute arose, A. D. 1620, between France and Spain concerning 
the Valtelline territory in northern Italy. This long and narrow valley, 
watered by the Adda, and reaching from Lake Como to the borders of 
the Tyrol, was anciently a possession of the dukes of Milan, but had been 
ceded by the last of the Sforzas to the Swiss Grisous. It was now of 
great importance to the Spaniards during the wars in Germany, as afford- 
ing a passage into that country from the Milanese. The people of the 
district, being Catholics, resented the sway of the protestant Swiss. In 
July, 1620, they rose against their rulers, massacred all who fell into their 
power, and called upon the neighboring Spaniards to protect them. The 
latter sent troops to seize all the fortresses in the valley. The French 
government demanded their evacuation from the court of Madrid, and a 
treaty to that effect was signed the following spring, but never executed. 
The insignificant king, Philip III., died in March, 1621, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Philip IV., then sixteen years of age. The death of 
Paul v., a month or two before, had transferred the papal crown to the 
head of Gregory XV., who wore it only two years. 

321. Richelieu became cardinal in 1622, but his reign in France began 
two years later with his appointment in the royal Council. In spite of 
some personal weaknesses of character, he was the ablest statesman whom 
France has produced. His clear and well defined policy coincided in 
some points with that of Henry IV. and Sully, especially in his unre- 
lenting hostility to the House of Austria. With this motive, he favored 
the Protestants of England, Holland, and Germany, though he made war 
upon those of France. For his injurious treatment of the latter, reason 
may be found in the second great principle of his policy, namely, the 
consolidation of -royal power and suppression of the feudal aristocracy. 
The chiefs of the Huguenots, it has been seen, affected to act as sover- 
eign princes in their own dominions ; they coined money, held courts, and 
inflicted penalties without reference to the royal tribunals ; and it was 
not until Richelieu's administration that the long struggle between the 



AFFAIRS OF FRANCE. 249 

king and the nobles, begun in the earliest days of the Capets, ended in 
the absolute supremacy of the king, or rather, in the present case, of his 
prime minister. The death-blow of feudal tyranny and private wars was 
given by the destruction of all castles and fortresses not upon the fron- 
tiers, or otherwise needful for the general protection. 

322. Among his first measures were a new alliance with Holland, whose 
twelve years" truce with Spain had but recently expired ; a marriage of 
Henrietta Maria, youngest sister of the king, with Charles Stuart, heir of 
the English crown; and an interference to wrest the Valtelline from the 
Spaniards, or rather from the Pope (now Urban VHI., 1623-1644), who 
held that territory for them. A combined army of Swiss 

and French entered the valley and quickly drove out the 
papal troops. Genoa, the faithful ally of Spain, was the next object of 
attack; but at this moment a fresh insurrection of the Huguenots called 
ofi" the Dutch naval forces in alliance with France to a siege of the Isle 
of Re, which guards the harbor of Eochelle. 

323. With consummate art, Eichelieu disengaged himself from a knot 
of perplexities. He used the English influence to pacify the Huguenots; 
he ratified a treaty with Spain by which the affairs of the Valtelline were 
restored to nearly the condition in which they had been before the inva- 
sion of 1620 ; he consoled the Duke of Savoy, who had coveted the dis- 
puted territory, with the hope of a royal title, and conciliated the 
English, who were reasonably offended by being made tools in matters 
with which they had no interest, with the promise of a large French 
army to aid in restoring the elector Frederic to his lost Palatinate. 

324. Friendly relations did not long continue between England and 
France. Charles I. became king by the sudden death of his father in 
March, 1625 ; and his marriage with the princess Henrietta Maria was 
celebrated by proxy at Paris a few weeks later. By the terms of the 
treaty, the queen was accompanied to England by her own clergy ; but 
these, instead of confining themselves to the duties of their office, de- 
stroyed by their intrigues the peace of the court. By their advice and 
in their company the queen made a pious pilgrimage to Tyburn, where, 
indeed, some Catholics had suffered martyrdom in the time of Henry 
Vni., but which was now the place of execution for the lowest criminals. 
In consequence of this undignified proceeding, all the French attendants 
of Henrietta Maria were dismissed from the kingdom. The French court 
apologized for their conduct, and Charles thereupon permitted twelve 
French priests and a bishop to be attached to his wife's household. 

325. But hostile movements had gone too far to be arrested. The 
Duke of Buckingham, a favorite of Charles I., was sent with a great fleet 
to capture the forts upon the Isle of Ee, then in the hands of the be- 
siegers. He proved himself no less contemptible as a general than as 



250 MODERN HISTORY. 

a man, and the only result of his ill-starred expedition was to hasten the 
reduction of Rochelle, long contemplated by Richelieu. This remarkable 
prelate and statesman now discovered the highest qualities of generalship. 
Across the inlet to the harbor he constructed a mole, which he fortified 
with strong earthworks and cannon, cutting off all access from the sea, 
while a besieging army equally prevented the entrance of supplies by 
land. The starving citizens saw two English fleets approach for their 
relief, and, after ineffectually cannonading the mole, disappear in the 
ofiing. Upon the second of these disappointments, the town 
surrendered, and the king entered in triumph. The victory 
was used with moderation. Eichelieu had previously declared that the 
time of martyrdom for conscience was past, and that his Majesty waged 
war, not with Huguenots, but with rebels. As an insurgent city, Eochelle 
was deprived of its political privileges, but the people were confirmed in 
the free exercise of their religion. The fall of Montauban in August of 
the next year, completed the extinction of the Huguenots as a party in 
the state. 

326. Prince Maurice of Nassau died in April, 1625. He was succeeded 
as Captain-General of the United Provinces by his brother Frederic 
Henry, who was also elected Stadtholder of Holland, Zealand, and West 
Friesland. About the same time King Christian IV. of Denmark entered 
into the wars of Germany by accepting an appointment as military chief 
of the Circle of Lower Saxony, and marching an army from the Elbe 
to the Weser. He was defeated by Tilly near Hanover, and the first 
campaign was decidedly in favor of the imperialists. In the spring of 
1626, Wallenstein, now Duke of Friedland and a prince of the Empire, 
marched into the north with an army which he avowedly supported by 
plunder or by billeting it in free quarters upon the people. Fortunately 
a jealousy between Wallenstein and Tilly prevented their acting in con^ 
cert. The former, turning to the east, pursued Count Mansfeld, while 
the latter captured Miinden in Hanover, prevented the junction of the 
Danish king with the Saxon dukes, and finally defeated him with great 
loss at Lutter. 

327. The next spring, Wallenstein again advanced northward, his free- 
booting army preceded and accompanied by bands of gypsies, who con- 
cealed themselves in the woods and plundered farms and houses as they 
had opportunity. The king of Denmark was forced to retreat into his 
own dominions, and even to abandon Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland 
to the two imperial armies. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, still engaged 
in his war with Poland, could render little assistance except by prevent- 
ing that country from sending aid to the imperialists. Wallenstein 
greatly respected his talents, and tried to draw him into a treaty for the 
partition of the Danish dominions; Sweden to gain Norway and the 



THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 251 

province of Schonen, while either the emperor or Wallenstein himself 
would receive Denmark, with the control of the Baltic Sea. Gustavus 
rejected his overtures, and joined Christian IV. in aiding Stralsund 
when besieged by the imperial forces. The failure of this 
siege was a check upon the victorious career of Wallen- 
stein, who was forced to withdraw with a loss of nearly half his army. 
Tilly was at the same time weakened by the detachment of troops to 
Italy, and Christian IV. was able to drive him successively from Jutland, 
Holstein, and Schleswig. The treaty of Lubec, May, 1629, restored peace 
between Denmark and the Empire. Christian abandoned his late allies, 
and engaged to take no part in German affairs except in his quality as 
Duke of Holstein. 

328. Among the most difficult questions raised by the Reformation in 
Germany was that which related to ecclesiastical property. Much of this 
had been bestowed, centuries ago, under conditions of tribute and obedi- 
ence to the Eoman Church. On the other hand, protestant sovereigns, 
as well as the heirs and descendants of donors, claimed their right to 
control the disposition of benefices. The imperial Edict of Restitution, 
enacted by Ferdinand II. in 1629, deprived Protestants of all church 
property of which they had become possessed since the Peace of Passau. 
Two of the most important bishoprics so held — those of Halberstadt and 
Magdeburg — were bestowed upon the emperor's brother, who already held 
a plurality of sees. In many protestant cities the churches were closed, 
and even private worship forbidden. So vast were the financial interests 
involved, that the Edict, if enforced, would have destroyed all commercial 
security in the Empire. 

329. At this juncture the German princes were singularly lacking in 
spirit and patriotism. The true champion both of civil and religious 
rights was the king of Sweden, who, with the secret aid of France, now 
appeared as a principal actor upon the scene. Richelieu, who held the 
balance of European affairs, gladly saw the imperial power weakened by 
the religious dissensions in Germany, though his position as cardinal and 
minister of a Catholic king prevented his making open war in the prot- 
estant interests. He had, however, negotiated the truce between Sweden 
and Poland which set Gustavus Adolphus free to prosecute his designs 
in the Empire; and he urged upon that sovereign the subsidies and close 
alliance of the French court. These were at first rejected, but a few 
months later a treaty was signed at Beerwald in Neumark, binding the 
two powers for five years to mutual aid and cooperation. The most 
prudent of the Swedish Council admitted the necessity of the war. Late 
movements of Wallenstein toward the supreme control of the Baltic, 
threatened their commerce, while the support rendered to Sigismund of 
Poland in his claim to the crown of Sweden, and the contemptuous and 



252 MODERN HISTORY. 

even violent exclusion of Swedish embassadors from the Congress of Lu- 
bec, were flagrant insults to their king. 

330. Thus convinced of the justice of his cause, Gustavus "set his 
house in order like a dying man." Intrusting the government to a 
Council of Regency, and commending his daughter and heiress, Chris- 
tina, then but four years old, to the care and fidelity of the estates, he 
set sail from Sweden, which he was never again to behold, and landed, 
June 24, on the island of Rugen in Pomerania. The moment was favor- 
. T. ,„,„ able to the invasion. The Diet at Ratisbon had iust secured 

A. D. 1630. _ _ "^ 

the dismissal of Wallenstein, whose brutal tyrannies and ex- 
tortions had exhausted the patience even of his own party, while his 
ascendency over the emperor enraged the Duke of Bavaria, and his 
haughty assumption of sovereign state oflended all the princes of the 
League. 

Most of his officers quitted the imperial service upon the retirement 
of their chief, and Tilly, who succeeded him in command, found the 
army diminished even more in effective force than in numbers. Still 
the arrival of the Swedes attracted little attention in Vienna, where it 
was predicted that the " Snow-King " would never dare venture far from 
his own frozen dominions. But while the courtiers mocked, Gustavus ad- 
vanced, the fortresses of Pomerania and Mecklenburg falling, one after 
another, into his possession. In vain the imperial generals laid waste the 
whole country, even burning towns and villages to prevent their affording 
shelter and support to the Swedes. The perfect order and discipline of 
the latter won the hearts of the people, who were surprised to find all 
their rights respected by the invading army. 

331. The electors of Saxony and Brandenburg declined the Swedish 
king's proposal of cooperation, and even resisted his progress. The former 
claimed by hereditary right the leadership of the German Protestants — 
a post which he had not the ability to maintain ; while the latter, though 
a brother-in-law of the Swedish king, was actuated more by jealousy and 
cowardice than by an enlightened regard to the interests of his people. 
Thus unsupported by the princes of northern Germany, Gustavus was 
reluctantly compelled to leave the important city of Magdeburg to its 
fate. This ancient seat of an archbishopric had become one of the first 
and firmest strongholds of the Reformation under princes of the House 
of Brandenburg. Its magistrates had resisted the Edict of Restitution 
and the investiture of Leopold of Styria, (§§ 316, 328) and in 1629 the 
"walls had sustained a seven months' bombardment by the imperial army. 
It was now besieged anew by Tilly, and upon its capture thirty thousand 
citizens were massacred. Hordes of savage Croats and not less brutal 
Walloons were let loose upon the miserable inhabitants ; and their rav- 
ages were only interrupted by the smoke and flames, which in a brief 



THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 253 

time consumed the entire city, except the Cathedral and a few houses 
in its neighborhood. 

332. Both armies being largely reinforced, Tilly with 150,000 men, 
marched into Saxony, ravaging and plundering with his usual ferocity. 
When the elector heard that two hundred of his villages were in flames, 
he was at length willing to ally himself with Gustavus Adolphus, whom 
he joined with 18,000 men. The battle of Leipzig, which immediately 
followed, resulted in a brilliant victory to the Swedes, while 

it revealed the long hidden decline of the Austrian power. 
So complete was the rout of the imperialists, that scarcely two thousand 
could be rallied for the retreat to Halle ; and all their guns remained 
to the victor. Germany was at the mercy of Gustavus ; nothing impeded 
his march to Vienna, and he might apparently have ended the war by 
striking directly at the heart of his foe. But he had higher views than 
conquest, and believed that he could better secure the religious freedom 
of the Empire by entering the territories of the League, where, in every 
state, a minority were still struggling for the rights of conscience. Leav- 
ing the conquest of Bohemia to the elector of Saxony, he took the road 
through Franconia to the Ehine. All the important towns and fortresses 
were taken, in scarcely more time than would have been required for an 
ordinary tour of pleasure. Many of them gladly opened their gates and 
welcomed the invader as a deliverer. 

333. The Spanish garrison of Mentz surrendered Dec. 13, and that town 
became the Swedish head-quarters. At Christmas, the "Snow-King" was 
firmly established on the Ehine, attended by his queen, his chancellor, 
and a brilliant court of princes and embassadors. But his unexpected 
approach to the French frontier had alarmed the suspicions of Louis 
XIII. , while Eichelieu began to fear the decline of his own influence in 
the Empire. The elector of Treves, declining the Swedish protection, 
admitted a French garrison into Ehrenbreitstein, ceding to that nation 
a coveted foothold on the Ehine, which was not soon relinquished. Hav- 
ing driven all the Spaniards from the Palatinate, Gustavus returned into 
Franconia. Nuremberg received him with acclamations of joy as the 
protector of German liberty. Thence marching to the Danube, he cap- 
tured Donauwerth, and pursued the imperial army to the Lech, which 
alone separated him from Bavaria. 

The river, though narrow, was deep, rapid, and now swollen by the 
melting of the winter snows. Tilly occupied a strongly fortified camp on 
the Bavarian side ; the Swedish council of war declared his position too 
strong to be attacked, but the king, who had personally reconnoitered 
the whole region, had his own plan of operations, which proved eminently 
successful. Placing his artillery at a bend of the river where the height 
of the bank gave him a. great advantage over the imperialists, he ordered 



254 MODERN HISTORY. 

a tremendous cannonade upon the enemy's camp. Under cover of the 
smoke and noise, he then caused a bridge to be constructed, while the 
Bavarians were kept from interfering by the terrible precision with which 
the Swedish guns swept the opposite bank. Tilly received a mortal wound, 
and Maximilian, abandoning the defense of his frontier, retired to Ingol- 
stadt. 

334. The humiliated emperor was compelled to recall Wallenstein. 
That general, who had been secretly aiding the Saxon conquest of Bo- 
hemia for the sake of forcing this very necessity upon his ungrateful 
master, now feigned a haughty reluctance, and finally consented to serve 
only upon conditions which were both injurious and insulting to the em- 
peror. He demanded to be absolute Dictator; no prince of the House 
of Austria was to be with the army, no appointments made, and no 
orders given by Ferdinand ; all confiscated estates were to be at the 
disposal of Wallenstein. Revenge and ambition had made him a traitor ; 
and he accepted the imperial commission only as a stepping-stone to sov- 
ereignty. 

335. The magic of his name drew together a powerful army, and Bo- 
hemia was speedily reconquered; but the Swedish king had meanwhile 
entered Augsburg and received the homage of its citizens, then pressed 
on and occupied the Bavarian capital. In vain the emperor begged a 
few regiments to relieve Bavaria and thus avert danger from Austria 
itself. Wallenstein could not forego the opportunity of revenge upon his 
bitterest enemy. At last he consented to a formal reconciliation with 
Maximilian, and adding the Bavarian forces to his own — for he still 
insisted upon the undivided authority — he followed Gustavus to Nurem- 
berg, and fortified a camp within a few miles of the Swedish lines. Nine 
weeks the two armies which held in their hands the destinies of Germany, 
remained facing each other, while hunger and pestilence waged, with both, 
a more destructive warfare than the sword. At length the Swedish king, 
failing to draw his enemy into a battle on equal ground, stormed his in- 
trenchments and was repulsed with a loss of several thousands of men. 
He soon withdrew into Bavaria, and Wallenstein gladly saw the Swedish 
forces engaged in humbling his rival, while he himself turned to pursue 
his designs upon Saxony. A revolt of the Austrian peasants opened a 
way for Gustavus to the imperial capital, but again he sacrificed his own 
interests to the demands of his Saxon ally. 

336. Making a rapid movement to the northward, he collected fresh 

forces in Franconia, and on the evening of November 15, arrived upon 

the plain of Lutzen, where Wallenstein was already posted 
A. D. 1632. ^ ' . 

to receive him. The next morning the whole Swedish 

army, kneeling, joined in the devotions of their king, and then broke 

forth in singing Luther's hymn, "Fine feste Burg ist unser Gott." The 



DEATH OF GU8TAVUS ADOLPHUS. 255 

two greatest generals in Europe were for the first time to meet on 
equal terms, and every soldier felt that the fate of the Empire hung 
upon the issue. Three imperial brigades were put to flight by the 
impetuous valor of the Swedes, but the word and example of Wal- 
lenstein were sufiicient to rally them and lead them anew to the 
contest. A colonel of Swedish' cavalry having been wounded, the king 
took command in person, and charging the enemy in advance of his 
whole army, received a mortal wound. His men, now led by Duke Bern- 
hard of Saxe Weimar, were inspired by a fury of revenge, and after nine 
hours' obstinate fighting, the troops of Wallenstein were withdrawn. Te 
Deums were indeed chanted as for a victory in all the Spanish and Aus- 
trian dominions, but the field, with the imperial artillery, remained to 
the Swedes. 

337. The death of Gustavus Adolphus was a grief to Christendom. 
Never was king or general more beloved; he hated flattery and de- 
manded absolute sincerity from all with whom he dealt, but he was 
careful to give every man his due proportion of praise, and never forgot 
a brave deed done in his service. His death completed the beneficent 
results of his life, for in the general consternation, the hitherto inert 
powers of Germany were roused to self-defense, and the united energy 
of the many was better than the all-absorbing authority of one, however 
disinterested was his devotion to the common cause. It is possible, too, 
that a longer career would have revealed lower motives than had yet 
appeared in the conduct of Gustavus. His failure to restore the Pala- 
tinate to Frederic V., his acceptance of sovereign honors at Augsburg, 
his apparent intention to establish a Swedish kingdom in the heart of 
the Empire, or even to grasp for himself the imperial crown, awakened 
anxiety in the lovers of German independence, lest they might have 
-exchanged an Austrian for a foreign despot. As yet, however, no un- 
worthy act had sullied the brightness of his fame. A German poet has 
celebrated him as the " first and only just conqueror that the world has 
produced." 

E,EC^:PITTJXi.A.T3:01T. 

War of France for the Valtelline. Accession of Pope Gregory XV., of Philip IV. in 
Spain, of Frederic Henry of Nassau in Holland. Richelieu prime minister in France; 
opposes the Hapsburgs ; captures Rochelle and Montauban ; ends the political existence 
of the Huguenots ; completes the consolidation of the monarchy. Intervention of Den- 
mark in the Thirty Years' War, ended by the Peace of Lubec. Edict of Restitution of 
confiscated church property. Franco-Swedish intervention. Invasion of Germany by 
Gustavus Adolphus. Dismissal of Wallenstein. Sack and massacre at Magdeburg by the 
soldiers of Tilly. Victory of the Swedes at Leipsic. Swedish head-quarters at Mentz. 
Defeat of Tilly on the Lech, and invasion of Bavaria. Recall of Wallenstein with dic- 
tatorial powers. Encampment of both armies at Nuremberg. Battle of Lutzen ; victory 
and death of Gustavus Adolphus. 



256 MODERN HISTORY. 



Thirty Years' War. — Concluded. 

338. A congress at Heilbronn of the four Circles of Southern Germany 
with the embassadors of France, England, and Holland, conferred upon 

Count Oxenstiern the same dignity which his master had 
held as protector of the protestant interests in opposition 
to the emperor and the League. The unfortunate elector-palatine having 
died since the battle of Lutzen, his reconquered estates were now secured 
to his heirs under the guardianship of their uncle, Louis Philip. The 
bishoprics of Bamberg and Wurtzburg were formed into the duchy of 
Franconia, and conferred, as a fief of the Swedish crown, upon Duke 
Bernhard of Weimar. Beside the conquest of these territories, the duke 
made the important capture of Eatisbon, during the campaign of 1633, 
thus gaining the command of the Danube. 

339. The fall of Wallenstein was soon to follow. His designs upon 
the crown of Bohemia were more than suspected, and a numerous and 
powerful party both at court and in the army, demanded his dismissal. 
Informed by spies of the decision of the imperial Council, Wallenstein 
assembled his principal officers at Pilsen and obtained their signatures to a 
paper in which they promised to stand by him to the last drop of their 
blood. What could not have been effected by open force was, however, 
accomplished by deception. Ferdinand kept up a friendly correspondence 
with his doomed victim, even after orders had been distributed through 
the army releasing officers and soldiers from their obedience, and requir- 
ing that he should be brought, alive or dead, into the imperial presence. 
The Italian general Piccolomini, whom Wallenstein regarded as his best 
friend, acted under secret orders from the court to incite the soldiery 
against him and lay snares for his life. The murder was accomplished 

at Wallenstein's own quarters in Eger, by some officers of 
an Irish regiment. His confiscated estates rewarded the 
more distinguished of his assassins. The emperor, who had twice owed 
his crown to the man whom he had thus illegally and violently put to 
death, publicly thanked and praised the instruments of the crime, while 
he ordered three thousand masses to be sung for the soul of its victim. 

340. King Ferdinand of Bohemia assumed the command-in-chief of the 
army, which, in the summer of 1634, took Donauwerth and threatened 
Nordlingen. The Swedish general Horn, who had been detached to guard 
the passes of the Tyrolese Alps, was compelled to rejoin Duke Bernhard, 
and leave the way open for the advance of the Cardinal Infant, Ferdi- 
nand of Spain, with an army from Italy. This warlike prelate was said to 
be the first Spanish prince since John of Austria who had possessed any 
military talent. He joined King Ferdinand under the walls of Nord- 
lingen, and a great battle was fought (Aug. 26, 27), which ended in the 



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TREATY OF PRAGUE. 257 

complete and ruinous overthrow of the Swedish army. Horn and three 
other generals, with 6,000 men, were prisoners ; 12,000 lay dead upon the 
field, while 80 guns, 300 standards, and 4,000 wagons fell into the hands 
of the victors. 

341. The Swedes were now reluctantly compelled to buy the active aid 
of the French by favoring the annexation of Alsace by Louis XIII. Lor- 
raine had already been forcibly annexed, and a "Parliament of Austrasia"| 
was duly instituted at Metz. The conquered duke, Charles, abdicated in 
favor of his brother, the cardinal Nicholas Francis, and entering the im- 
perial service, became a valiant and successful general, instead of a faith- 
less and unfortunate sovereign. The French court made a close alliance 
the same year with Prince Frederic Henry of Nassau for a simultaneous 
invasion of the Spanish Netherlands from north and south. These prov- 
inces were invited to form an independent state, ceding a liberal tract of 
their territories on either side to the two neighboring nations by whose 
aid their deliverance from the Spaniards was to be achieved. If they 
refused this offer, they were to be conquered and divided between Holland 
and France. 

342. Philipsburg on the Ehine had already been wrested by the Span- 
iards from the French ; and in March, 1635, Treves was likewise seized, 
its French garrison destroy-ed, and the elector carried away as prisoner to 
Antwerp. The Cardinal Infant, failing to sui'render him upon the demand 
of Eichelieu, war was declared against Spain by a French herald at Brus- 
sels. The elector was already under the ban of the empire for having 
admitted French troops into Ehrenbreitstein ; and he was soon conveyed 
to Vienna, where he remained in captivity ten years. 

343. The elector of Saxony, long wavering, decided after the battle of 
Nbrdlingen to make his peace with the emperor. All the German states, 
with one or two exceptions, acceded in time to the Treaty of 

Prague, though all joined in condemning the base ingrati- 
tude of John George of Saxony, in defense of whose dominions the king 
of Sweden had lost his life, but who engaged, by a special article of the 
treaty, to assist in driving the Swedes out of Germany. The emperor 
made many concessions with regard to church property and freedom of 
worship, except in Bohemia, which kingdom was now declared to be hered- 
itary in his family. The Swedes refused to accept the treaty, and their 
own propositions to the Court of Vienna were disregarded. The Union of 
Heilbronn was formally dissolved. 

344. Germany being thus momentarily pacified, Piccolomini entered 
the Netherlands with 20,000 men ; while the imperial army of the Ehine 
drove the French not only from that river and the Neckar, but from the 
lower Moselle and Sarre. Eichelieu' s operations in the Netherlands and 
the Milanese were not more successful ; and in 1636, France was invaded 

M. H.— 17. 



258 MODERN HISTORY. 

on four sides by Spanish and imperial troops, though with no great effect. 
Bands of Croats and Hungarians ravaged the northern provinces and ter- 
rified Paris, where loud complaints began to be heard against the chief 
minister. The cardinal, however, quickly raised an armj which dislodged 
the imperialists from Corbie and drove them from the country. 

345. In Germany, Duke Bernhard of Weimar was performing brilliant 
feats of arms in the service of France, while the Swedes, under Banner, in 
spite of one or two reverses, were so far from being expelled that they de- 
feated the faithless elector of Saxony at Domitz and still more decisivelj- 

at Wittstock. The emperor Ferdinand II., died at Vienna. 

Feb., 1637. ^ 

and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III. More toler^ 
ant by nature, and less influenced by the Spaniards and the Jesuits than 
his father, the new emperor had also been a personal witness of the 
misery and desolation wrought by the war, and began his reign with an 
ardent desire for peace. Military movements were, however, prosecuted 
with unabated zeal, and Banner was compelled not only to raise the 
siege of Leipzig, but to effect a retreat into Pomerania by a series of 
adventures and escapes which seem to belong rather to romance than 
history. 

346. The great heroes of the Thirty Years' War — Tilly, Wallenstein, 
Gustavus Adolphus — had all passed away, and though the conflict con- 
tinued eleven years longer, with ever-increasing atrocity, its details are 
more hideous than instructive. The admirable discipline maintained 
among the Swedes by their king was now dissolved; even the profli- 
gate Banner declared that it would be no wonder if the earth should 
open and swallow them up for their crimes and cruelties. The Ger- 
man armies, on the other hand, lived without a commissariat, and 
commonly without pay, at the expense of the wretched inhabitants of 
the countries through which they passed. Each army systematically de- 
stroyed the produce of the soil, in order to starve its opponents ; the 
grand weapon of the war in Germany, and toward its last years the ex- 
clusive one, was hunger — a means of destruction from which the inno- 
cent, women and children, suffered even more than the active combatants. 

347. In the latest period of the war — that following the Treaty of 
Prague — all the leading European states were more or less actively en- 
gaged. Duke Bernhard having died at the zenith of his brilliant career, 
all his conquests on the upper Ehine were absorbed by France. The 
electoral prince of the Palatinate was aided by his two nearest relatives, 
the king of England and the Prince of Orange ; but his first Dutch army 
was destroyed by the imperialist general Hatzfeld, and his brother Ku- 
pert, afterward unhappily famous in England, remained some years a 
prisoner in Germany. 

348. The home-forces of Spain were for a time absorbed by the revolt 



HOUSE OF BBAGANgA IN PORTUGAL. 259 

of Biscay and Catalonia. The intolerable outrages of a Spanisli army- 
quartered in those provinces during the French campaign of 1639-40, 
incensed the people ; bands of half-savage mountaineers, repairing to Bar- 
celona to hire themselves out for labor in the fields, caught the fury, and 
by a sudden impulse every Castilian or foreigner in the city was mur- 
dered. The insurgents sent to all the European powers a statement of 
their grievances against the Spanish government, and Louis XIII. en- 
gaged by formal treaty to provide officers and troo^js for the inevitable 
war. A Spanish force of 20,000 men was already on its march to the 
Catalan frontier, marking its route by fire and massacre, and the rebels 
soon converted their treaty with France into an act of perpetual union 
with that kingdom. 

349. The liberation of Portugal was a more permanent loss to Spain. 
This conquered kingdom had only been oppressed, humiliated, and im- 
poverished by its sixty years' subjection to the Spanish crown. Her 
commerce with the Indies was crippled, her navy destroyed, and her 
people crushed with taxes which went to build needless palaces for the 
Spanish kings. On receiving a command to march against the Catalans, 
the Portuguese nobles and officers resolved rather to imitate those in- 
surgents. The foreign guards of Lisbon and the vice-queen's palace were 

cut down ; the Duke of Braganca, a descendant of the an- . _ 

' . . -^- D. 1640. 

cient kings of Portugal, was proclaimed sovereign as John 

IV., and the revolution was complete. The Portuguese colonies, with the 

single exception of Ceuta in Africa, overpowered their Spanish garrisons; 

and the Cortes assembled in 1641 at Lisbon declared the right of every 

nation to depose a tyrant, even were he a legitimate monarch and not a 

usurper like the king of Spain. Thus was founded the dynasty which, 

in its royal and imperial branches, still rules Portugal and Brazil. 

350. The Spaniards were not more fortunate upon the sea. In 1638 
their fleet had been destroyed by the French in Guetaria; and in 1639 
a great armada — the most powerful they had sent forth since that "in- 
vincible" armament which had threatened England — was likewise an- 
nihilated by the Dutch. Arras, the capital of Artois, and long the bul- 
wark of the Spanish Netherlands against France, was captured in the 
same year with Piedmont, 1640. 

351. The Swedes had more than retrieved their losses in 1637. The 
next year they defeated the imperial army at Elsterburg, the Saxons at 
Chemnitz ; captured and destroyed Pirna, and spread terror and desola- 
tion throughout Bohemia, where more than a thousand castles, hamlets, 
and villages were laid in ashes. The campaigns of 1639 and 1640 were 
sharply contested, and the advantages were more evenly divided. In 
January, 1641, Banner, by a rapid and masterly movement through the 
upper Palatinate,- appeared suddenly before Ratisbon, where a Diet was 



260 MODERN HISTORY. 

in session. The emperor was very nearly captured, but the city was saved 
by a thaw which prevented the Swedes from crossing the Danube. Ban- 
ner died the following May. 

352. General Torstenson, who succeeded him in command of the 
Swedes, was the ablest pupil and imitator of Gustavus Adolphus. He 
transferred the seat of war to the Austrian territories, which had hitherto 
escaped the general devastation; captured Glogau, Schweidnitz, Olmutz, 
and excited terror in Vienna itself He besieged Leipzig, and defeated 
the archduke Leopold, who was approaching for its relief, on the very 
ground which Gustavus Adolphus had, eleven years before, made famous by 
a decisive victory. The town surrendered three weeks later, and redeemed 
itself from pillage only by an enormous contribution. A severe winter 
scarcely impeded the energetic movements of the Swedes ; the imperialists 
were forced from their winter-quarters to defend Freiberg ; but scarcely 
had Torstenson raised his siege of that town, when with a swift and unex- 
pected movement, he penetrated through Bohemia and relieved Olmiitz, 
which was closely pressed by their forces. His fortified camp near that 
place commanded the whole of Moravia, and his detachments again car- 
ried their ravages to the walls of Vienna. 

353. The French on the lower Ehine, meanwhile, gained a victory at 
Kempen which opened to them the whole electorate of Cologne and 
duchy of Jiiliers. In the war for the Catalans, Louis XIH. besieged and 

captured Perpignan. But the united reign of the king and 
the cardinal was near its. end. Richelieii died in December 
and Louis the following May, 1643. The French people, generally incapable 
of comprehending the far-reaching plans of the great minister, celebrated 
his death with bonfires and rejoicings. Though we can not justify the 
system of deceit which constituted so large a part of the diplomacy of 
the age, and notably of Eichelieu's policy, yet it is evident that the sub- 
sequent ascendency of France in European affairs was a direct result of 
his genius and resolution. With almost his last breath he named Mazarin 
as his successor, and that Italian cardinal was immediately appointed a 
member of the royal council. Upon the death of the king, he became the 
prime minister of the queen regent, Anne of Austria. 

354r. Louis XIV., now, by his father's death, king of France, was not 
yet five years old. In his reign of seventy-two years — the longest in 
European annals — is comprised a most brilliant and eventful epoch, illus- 
trated not less by the variety of talent employed in his service than by 
his own amazing proficiency in king-craft. His career belongs, however, 
to the ensuing period of our history. The young Duke d'Enghien, after- 
ward known as the " great Conde," was now giving proof of his consum- 
mate genius in his command of the French forces in the Netherlands. 
He gained a decisive victory over the Spaniards at Kocroi, and soon 



END OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 261 

besieged and captured Thionville, the key to Luxembourg and the strong- 
est place, excepting Metz, in the line of the Moselle. 

355. By the victories of Enghien and Turenne in 1644, the French 
acquired the whole valley of the Ehine from Basle to Coblentz, though 
they were repulsed with great loss from Freiburg. The next year, En- 
ghien, advancing toward the Danube, gained a brilliant victory over the 
Bavarian general Von Mercy on the heights of Nordlingen, by which 
that town and Dinkelsbiihl were gained for France. Turenne not only 
captured many towns in Flanders, but took Treves, and restored the long- 
captive elector to his archbishopric. In 1646, Enghien captured Courtrai, 
Mardyk, and Dunkirk, and only the insanity of the Prince of Orange 
prevented greater conquests by the combined forces of France and Hol- 
land. Turenne, in connection with the Swedes, pushed his operations the 
same year to the gates of Munich. 

356. Sweden had become involved (1644) in a war with Denmark, by 
the intrigues of the emperor and of the Swedish queen-dowager, who had 
been excluded from the regency during her daughter's minority. The 
pretext was found in the demand of the Danish government for a pay- 
ment of toll by Swedish vessels passing into the Baltic — an imposition 
from which they had been exempted by special treaty. Denmark was 
invaded by Torstenson, and the whole peninsula, as well as Schleswig and 
Holstein, was speedily overrun, while the Danes lost also their province 
of Schonen and the towns of Helsingborg and Landscrona. A military 
force sent by the emperor to the relief of his ally, was annihilated or 
dispersed, with the exception of 2,000 men who accomplished their retreat 
into Germany. 

357. Torstenson, then turning his attention to the latter country, pene- 
trated Bohemia, and gained at Jankowitz, over the imperialists, one of the 
most decisive victories of the whole war. The young queen, Christina of 
Sweden, assumed the government on her eighteenth birthday in 1644. 
Desiring peace, she required her great minister, Oxenstiern, to enter into 
negotiations with the Danes, and in August, 1645, the treaty of Bromsebro 
restored tranquillity between the two kingdoms. The southern provinces 
of the Swedish peninsula, so long held by Denmark, were relinquished, 
and Swedish vessels were exempted from all tolls in the Sound or Belts. 

358. The ancient contest for Naples and the duchy of Milan had been 
renewed in 1635 by the declaration of war between France and Spain. 
In 1647, Naples revolted and besought the aid of France in expelling the 
Spanish viceroy and establishing a republic. The Duke of Guise was 
offered a position in the new state equivalent to that of the Prince of 
Orange in Holland ; but as a descendant of the French house of Anjou, 
he doubtless intended to convert his protectorate into a sovereignty; 
while Cardinal Mazarin desired rather to obtain the Neapolitan crown 



262 MODERN HISTORY. 

for Louis XIV. The duke was received at Naples with joy and with cries 
of " Long live the Eepublic ! " Philip IV., engrossed by his 

Nov., 1647. ^ JT - J o .; 

operations against Portugal and Catalonia, and despairing of 
making good his title to so distant a possession, recalled his fleet ; but 
the inactivity of the French revived his courage. Another armament in 
1648 effected a restoration of Spanish authority ; and Guise, taken pris- 
oner at Capua, was held four years in captivity in Spain. 

359. Already in 1641 movements had been made toward a general 
peace, and the neighboring towns of Miinster and Osnabriick in West- 
phalia were appointed for the meeting of commissioners from the several 
nations. More than a year was wasted in disputes concerning minute 
points of etiquette ; but in 1643 the two congresses — one of protestant, 
the other of Catholic powers — were formally opened. Not only all the 
great nations of Europe, except England, Poland, and Russia; but the 
dukes of Savoy, Mantua, Tuscany, Catalonia, the electors and all the 
princes, temporal or spiritual, of Germany, had their ministers either at 
Miinster or Osnabriick. England was absorbed in civil war, and it was 
fortunate for the growth of her liberties that the continental sovereigns 
were prevented from interfering in behalf of the divine right of kings. 

360. All the governments were, doubtless, sincere in their desire for 
peace. Ferdinand III. was at the end of his resources; a large part of 
the empire was still in arms against him and another large part had de- 
clared itself neutral, while his hereditary states were reduced to poverty 
by their extraordinary exertions. Spain had lost Portugal, Catalonia, 
and many towns in the Netherlands, and was now reduced to make hu- 
miliating concessions to France. This power and Sweden were bent on 
enriching themselves as much as possible from the crumbling fragments 
of the empire. Still, so many and conflicting were the claims, that ne- 
gotiations were protracted more than five years, and peace appeared, at 
many points in the conferences, utterly unattainable. The ministers felt 
their own importance increased by the continuance of the discussion, 
while the generals had an equal professional interest in the prolongation 
of the war. Disputes concerning the right of precedence between the 
embassadors of France and Spain, and the title of Excellency borne by 
the Venetian envoy and claimed by the representatives of the German 
electors, wasted precious months of the conference at Miinster, while that 
at Osnabriick was wholly suspended during the war between Sweden and 
Denmark. 

361. At length, however, the rebellion at Naples compelled Spain to 
urge on her negotiations with the United Netherlands ; and a peace was 

signed in which the seven provinces (see § 258) were ac- 

■' ' knowledged as free and sovereign states. The towns of 

Dutch Flanders, as well as all the conquests of the Hollanders in Asia, 



PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 263 

Africa, and America, were made over to the new Republic. Thus ended 
the Eighty Years' War of Independence sustained by the northern Neth- 
erlands against the power of Spain — a power by far the greatest in 
Europe when the struggle began, now crippled and reduced, partly by 
her own suicidal policy, partly by the heroic and persistent eflForts of 
her former subjects. 

362. The war still went on between France and Sweden, on the one 
hand — Spain and the Empire, on the other. Turenne and Wrangel, in 
command of a Franco-Swedish army, defeated the imperialists near Augs- 
burg and overran Bavaria with all the customary barbarities. Conde 
gained, at Lens, one of his most brilliant victories over the archduke 
Leopold ; and the Swedish generalissimo, Charles Gustavus, advancing 
upon Prague, waged an indecisive war with General Konigsmark of the 
imperial army. Thus the Thirty Years' War ended upon the same spot 
where it had begun ; for the emperor, despairing of retrieving his fortunes 
by a longer contest, consented to a suspension of hostilities, while the con- 

. ferences at Miinster were pressed to a conclusion. The Peace of West- 
phalia was signed Oct. 24, 1648. 

363. in Germany, general amnesty, religious freedom, and the sovereign 
rights of the several princes in peace and war, were conceded by the em- 
peror. The Upper Palatinate remained to Maximilian of Bavaria ; but 
the "Palatinate of the Ehine," with an eighth electoral vote, was secured 
to Charles Louis, the son of the deposed elector Frederic V. The Dutch 
and Swiss republics, hitherto members of the Empire, were recognized as 
independent states. Sweden received Western Pomerania, Stettin, and 
three towns on the Oder, several islands and the bishoprics of Bremen and 
Verden, now secularized into a duchy and a principality. Her sovereign 
thus became a prince of the Empire, with three votes in the Diet. France 
was confirmed in possession of all the lands belonging to Metz, Toul, and 
Verdun, of Alsace, the Sundgau, Breisach, and the prefecture of ten im- 
perial cities, beside the fortress of Pignerol in Piedmont. 

364. The Treaty of Westphalia marks an important era in European 
history, for it was the first attempt to reconstruct the system of states by 
diplomacy, when their relations had been seriously disturbed. It defi- 
nitely closed the century and more of religious and consequent civil revo- 
lution ; it put an end to the international authority of the emperor, while 
it loosened the bond which had united the German states. Three hundred 
petty sovereignties existed between the Alps and the Baltic, each with its 
distinct coinage, its standing army, its custom-houses, and a court which 
made up in ceremony what it lacked in grandeur. Of the "Eoman Em- 
pire " there remained only the name, and a system of clumsy formalities 
which served chiefly to impede and embarrass European diplomacy. All 
really imperial functions — such as making war or peace, building for- 



264 MODERN HISTORY. 

tresses, raising armies, levying contributions — were transferred to the 
Diet, which from an occasional assembly of the princes in 
person, was soon changed into a permanent organization 
composed of their envoys with those of the fifty free cities. 

365. Pope Innocent X. denounced the treaty as " null, invalid, iniqui- 
tous, and void of all power and effect." The great revolution in human 
thought which this treaty marked and declared, in fact concerned His 
Holiness more nearly than any other European power, except, perhaps, 
the emperor. By admitting to full civil rights persons who were aliens 
and enemies to the Roman Church, it abrogated the whole theory by 
which the Empire and the papacy had subsisted together for nearly a 
thousand years. But this theory had been slowly vanishing from among 
the opinions and motives of men, and the treaty only announced a 
change already accomplished. The emperor forbade the papal bull to 
be circulated in his dominions, and the Catholic powers, glad of peace 
after a generation of conflict, completely disregarded the thunders of the 
Vatican. 

Union of Heilbronn , Oxenstiern at the head of protestant interests in Germany ; Duke 
Bernhard of Weimar in command of the army. Disgrace and death of Wallenstein. Dis- 
aster of the Swedes at Nordlingen. The French occupy Lorraine and Alsace; renew their 
alliance with Sweden and the United Netherlands. Imprisonment of the elector of Treves. 
Treaty of Prague between Saxony and the emperor, joined by most of the German states. 
Fourfold invasion of France by Spanish and imperial forces. Victories of the Swedes at 
Domitz and Wittstock. Accession of Ferdinand III. Last years of the war marked in 
Germany by increased atrocities, in Europe at large by more active and general cooper- 
ation. Spain loses Catalonia and Portugal. Rise in the latter of the Braganca dynasty. 
Naval disasters of the Spaniards. Devastation of Bohemia by the Swedes. Great victories 
of Torstenson. The French occupy Cologne and the neighboring territories. Death of 
Richelieu and Louis XIII. ; accession of Louis XIV. under regency of his mother and 
ministry of Mazarin. War between Sweden and Denmark ; repeated discomtitures of the 
Danes and defeat of the imperialists at Jankowitz. Queen Christina, attaining her ma- 
jority, concludes the Peace of Bromsebro. Naples revolts and hails the Duke of Guise 
as protector ; is subdued by a Spanish fleet. Congresses of Miinster and Osnabriick. End 
of Eighty Years' War for Independence of the United Netherlands. Continued victories 
of the French and Swedish armies. Peace of Westphalia closes the Thirty Years' War; 
puts a period to the Reformation, and changes the Empire into a mere confederation of 
three hundred states. 



QUESTIONS ir-OR REA^IEAV. 

Book III. 

1. To what extent was the Atlantic navigated during the Middle Ages ? . . ?? 2, 3 

2. Describe the enterprises of the Portuguese 4, 5, 6 

3. What resulted from the opening of a sea-route to India ? 6,7. 

4. What action was taken by the Popes concerning newly-discovered lands? . 5, TO. 



QUESTIONS FOB REVIEW. 265 

5. Tell the story of Columbus §§ 7-14. 

6. Give an outline of the other discoveries and explorations 15, 20, 22. 

7. Describe the Spanish conquests 16, 17-19, 21. 

8. VVhat is meant by the European States System? 23. 

9. Describe the principal nations of Europe at the beginning and end of the 

sixteenth century 24, 25, 286, 287. 

10. Sketch the character and career of Charles VIII. of France. .... 26-34. 

11. The history of Florence. . . . . . 27,46,58,59,113,125,189. 

12. Describe the character and reign of Pope Alexander VI 28, 33, 39. 

13. Of Louis XII. of France 34-38, 41-68. 

14. Of Pope Julius II 40, 48, 49, 51, 57, 58. 

15. Who governed Castile and Leon after the death of Isabella ? . . . .42, 43. 

16. Describe the League of Cambray and its consequences 44-57, 74. 

17. The character and history of Leo X 59, 91. 

18. Of the emperor Maximilian 25, 53, 54, 72. 

19. Of Ferdinand of Spain. 71. 

20. What changes have occurred in Kavarre? 60,73,89,93. 

21. What alliances between France and England ? 63, 78, 322, 324. 

22. What V7as the character of Francis I. and his court? 64, 93, 107. 

23. Of Henry VIII. of England ? 65, 92. 

24. What were the titles and character of Charles V. ? 66, 77. 

25. Describe his policy toward Spain 74, 75, 89, 90, 98, 139. 

26. Toward the Netherlands 140, 150, 162, 165. 

27. What rival interests had Charles V. and Francis I.? 67. 

28. Give an outline of their wars. . 89, 92, 93, 96, 97, 102, 103, 108, 115, 116, 136, 143, 144, 148. 

173, 175. 

29. Describe the several invasions of Italy by Francis 1 68, 69, 93, 94. 

30. His captivity 104-106. 

31. Tell the history of Cardinal Ximenes 73-75. 

32. Describe the progress and decline of the Turkish power. 25, 76, 99, 122, 129, 139, 142, 

171, 212-215, 131. 

33. What were the causes of the Reformation ? 79. 

34. Tell the story of Luther 80-87. 

35. Describe the beginning of the Reformation in Switzerland 88. 

36. Its progress in France 151, 152, 164, 194, 197, 202-206. 

37. What circumstance favored it in England ? 131, 132, 157. 

38. What civil disturbances during the Reformation in Germany? . . 117-120, 

39. What Leagues were formed respectively by the two religious parties ? . 121, 128. 

40. Tell the story of the Constable de Bourbon 100-102, 109, 111. 

41. Describe the two captures of Rome in 1526, '27 110-112. 

42. The reign of Pope Clement VII 102, 110-114, 130-133. 

43. What were the conditions of the Peace of Cambray? 116. 

44. Who were rival kings of Hungary after the battle of Mohacz? . . . 123, 124. 

45. What alliances between the French and the Turks? . . . 128, 137, 141, 147, 149. 

46. Describe the wars of Charles V. in Africa 134, 135, 148. 

47. His abdication, retirement, and death 179-182. 

48. What were the chief events in the life of Ferdinand I. ? . . 123, 128, 170, 187, 207. 

49. Describe the rise and influence of the Jesuits. 184-186, 241, 282. 

50. The Counter-reformation 185, 282, 297, 310, 328. 

51. What changes have occured in the Cleve-Duchies? .... 138, 146, 298, 300. 

52. AVhat kings of Scotland died during wars with England ? . . . . 145. 

53. Tell the story of Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland. . . 145, 163, 192, 201, 216, 217. 

54. The history of the Council of Trent 150. 161, 167, 199, 207. 

55. Of the Smalcaldic War . . 153-156, 166-169. 



2()t) MODKii]!^ insroiiY. 

5f.. Toll tho story of thoOnisos ^j) IW. laV-l.W, 168, 189, 191, 192, 196, -^Ol-'JOO, 

a'iO, 243, 215, 2f)l, 27S-27f), 278. 

67. Of Maurice of Saxony 15-1,1,^1,166,107,171,174. 

58. Of Mary I. of Enslaiul 176-178. 

69. Of niilii. 11. of Spain. 188-190,193,205,211,216,222,225,226,289,245, 

249-251, 260-263, 269, 270, 276, 280, 281. 

60. Describe the Netlu'rUuuls, tlioir vovolt, and the rise of the Dutch Kepublic. 

iS'ofP p. 19S 223-210,258-267,271,298-295,808,861. 

61. Name the .siici^essive foreign protectors of the Netherlands. 251, 256, 261, 262, 266, 267. 

62. Describe Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma 255, 259, 265, 271, 

68. The eharai^ter and history of Maximilian II. . . 208, 222, 281, 241. 

64. Of Henry 111. of France 242,248,246,247. 

(i5. Of John of Austria 181, 211, 214, 215, 258-255. 

66. What became of the Spanish MoriscocsY 211, 292. 

67. What changes of dynasty in Portugal ? 248-250,849. 

68. Describe the relations between England and Spain. 190-198, 205, 216, 284, 269-271, 279. 

69. The reign oi Elizabeth Tudor 193, 216, 217, 222, 286, 298. 

70. The death of Ileury 11. and subsequent conilition of parties in 

Knini'c 195-197. 

71. What changes followed the death of Francis 11. V 201,202. 

72.\iive an ovitliue of the religious wars in I'^rance. . 202-206, 209, 210, 218-222, 244-247, 

251,252,272-278. 
78. Describe Paul IV. and his successor 1,S7-1S9, 198, 199. 

74. Pi>is V. and Sixtus V 208, 216, 268. 

75. Three sous of William, Prince of Orange. . 265, 267, 271, 280, 808, 826, 355. 

76. The character and reign of Henry IV. of France. 219, 244, 247, 2,51, 275-279, 

288-292, 299. 

77. Of Frederic v., Klector- Palatine 800, 806-808, .SS8. 

78. Of Gustavus Adolphus .818,819,827,829-888,885-887. 

79. or Walleu.>;tein 306, 826, 827, 880, ,8.84-3,89. 

.SO. Sketch the history of the ui>rthern European kingdoms. .... 812-819. 

81. A\'hat part was taken by the Danes in the Thirty Years' War? . 826, 827, 856, .857. 

82. Name the most decisive battles of the 'fhirty Years' War. . ,309, ,822, 3,88, ,886, 340, .858, 

8,55, 857. 
88. Its most important treaties 327, 329, 888, 848, .8,59-865. 

84. Nau>e the sovereigns belonging to the tlireo branches of the House of 

Hapsburg, fri>m I'harles V. to the Peace of Westphalia. 

85. Name the English and French mouarchs, A. D. 1500-lt>48. 



BOOK IV. 



THE moder:^ era, 

Feom the Peace of Westphalia to the French Kevolution, 
A. D. 1648-1789. 

THE ENGLISH COMMONWEALTH. 

1. While the conferences at Miinster and Osnabriick were absorbing the 
attention of continental Europe, England had arrived at the crisis of a 
revolution occasioned, no less than the Thirty Years' War, by the relig- 
ious changes of the preceding century. The separation from Rome had 
appeared, indeed, to exalt and strengthen the royal prerogative. Henry 
Vni. was the most absolute of English kings. But the movement which 
began with placing him at the head of the national Church, was far from 
ending there. 

2. Elizabeth, with a temper no less arbitrary, had the prudence to meet 
the just demands of her people half-way, instead of allowing discontent 
to gather force. In her successor, James Stuart, "Nature and education 
had done their utmost to produce a finished specimen of all that a king 
ought not to be." His undignified person and manner were rendered 
contemptible by his affectation of the wisdom of Solomon and his de- 
mand, as " the Lord's anointed," upon the unlimited reverence and obe- 
dience of better men than himself. His son, Charles I., was personally 
worthy of far greater respect ; but he was ignorant of the force of that 
current of public opinion which had been gaining strength throughout 
his father's reign, and which, as he rashly attempted to oppose it, carried 
him away to his destruction. 

3. The Petition of Right, presented by both houses of Parliament in 
1628, was granted by the king in consideration of a vote of supplies ; but 
though the money was paid, the terms of the petition were violated. 
Dissolving the Parliament, the king attempted to levy by his own author- 

r2W) 



268 MODERN HISTORY. 

ity the taxes which could only be lawfully imposed by the Commons. 
His illegal exaction of "tonnage and poundage" was firmly resisted by 
Hampden and other patriots. The attempt of Charles to impose the rites 
of the Church of England upon the Scots caused the latter to unite in 
the " Solemn League and Covenant " and to prepare for open war. Need 
of money again threw the king upon the Parliament, which he sum- 
moned after the long interval of eleven years ; but at its first serious 
reaflirmation of the principles of Hampden, it was dissolved. 

4. The Long Parliament w^hich met the following November, adopted 
bolder measures. The arbitrary and illegal courts of the Star Chamber 
and of High Commission were abolished, and others of longer standing 
were reformed. The Earl of Strafibrd, the king's ablest and most un- 
scrupulous minister, was impeached, condemned, and beheaded. On 
learning that Charles, who had profited by his extortions, had consented 
to, sign his death-warrant, Strafibrd exclaimed, " Put not your trust in 
princes!" "The whole history of the times," says Macaulay, "is a com- 
mentary on that bitter text." Archbishop Laud was imprisoned in the 
Tower. The king now violated a fundamental law* of the kingdom by 
attempting the arrest of Hampden, Pym, and three other members of the 
House of Commons. This act broke the last bond of allegiance, and both 
pa-rties appealed to arms. 

5. The king's forces had at first the advantage of military experience 
over the citizen-soldiery of the Parliament; but their outrages upon pri- 
vate rights cost the king more of the moral support of the nation than 
their valor and skill could regain. Prince Rupert of the Palatinate — 
second son of the deposed elector Frederic and the English Princess 
Elizabeth — had been trained amid the brutalities of the Thirty Years' 
War, and was leader of the wildest " Cavaliers." The year 1643 was 
marked by the death of three of the most illustrious patriots: Hampden 
and Pym on the parliamentary, and Lord Falkland on the royal side. 
The Parliament entered the League of the Scottish Covenanters, whose 

army under General Leslie invaded England and joined 
the forces of Fairfax in besieging York. Rupert hastened 
to its relief, and in the great battle of Marston Moor, the royalists were 
decisively overthrown. Subsequent defeats at Newbury and Naseby 
ruined the hopes of Charles. Rupert surrendered Bristol, and sought a 
field for his reckless valor beyond the seas. The king put himself in 
the power of the Scottish leaders, by whom he was surrendered to the 
English in January, 1647.- 

6. Serious dissensions had already broken out in the victorious party. 
Presbyterians and Independents — the civil and the military authorities — 



*That no subject could be arrested by the king in person. 



EXECUTION OF CHARLES I. 269 

were ranged in opposition. The latter, under Oliver Cromwell, gained 
ascendency : the king was forcibly transferred from the control of the 
Parliament to that of the army, and the House of Commons was intim- 
idated by a guard of soldiers. The king's insincerity of purpose was 
more than ever apparent; he negotiated with all parties, but kept faith 
with none. But his enemies were now resolved upon an act which 
should assert in unequivocal terms the sovereignty of the people. Charles 
Stuart was impeached and tried for high treason before a court instituted 
for the purpose. He firmly denied its jurisdiction, and refused to plead 
his cause before it; but he was sentenced to death, and was beheaded 
before his palace of Whitehall, Jan. 30, 1649. 

7. This act — unprecedented in history — was regarded with very dif- 
ferent emotions even by the opponents of the dead king. Irish Catho- 
lics and Scottish Covenanters hastened to proclaim Charles II. Prince 
Rupert was already in the Irish seas with a foreign fleet. All the mal- 
contents in Ireland, of whatever creed or race, enrolled themselves under 
the banners of the Marquis of Ormond, to oppose the English Common- 
wealth. Lieutenant-General Cromwell was appointed by the Parliament 
to deal with the Irish rebellion. By a single act of extreme severity he 
overawed opposition, and the war, which had raged nine years in that 
distracted island, was brought to a conclusion in as many months. Crom- 
well permitted all the disaffected to leave the country, and 45,000 of the 
most dangerous accordingly enlisted in the armies of France and Spain. 
By this stroke of wise policy, peace was restored, and Ireland saw a new 
era of comparative order during the few years that Cromwell and his 
lieutenants administered her affairs. 

8. Charles II. was in every respect a worse man than his father ; but 
his dealings with the Scots showed only the same falsity of character 
which he had inherited from the victims of Fotheringay and Whitehall. 
The Marquis of Montrose was, by his urgent entreaties, gathering men 
and means to do battle for the royal cause, at the same time that Charles 
was promising adhesion to the Covenant, declaring his complete subserv- 
iency to the Scottish Parliament and Kirk, and denying all knowledge 
or responsibility concerning the movements of Montrose. This brave and 
loyal servant of a faithless prince was defeated at Kincardine and be- 
headed at Edinburgh with every circumstance of insult and malice. 

Charles landed soon after in Scotland, and was crowned at 

' Jan. 1, 1651. 

Scone. Cromwell with his army was already in the north- 
ern kingdom; he had routed the Scots at Dunbar (Sept. 3, 1650), and 
of his 10,000 prisoners many were sent to service in the New England 
plantations. Giving Cromwell the slip, Charles marched with 11,000 men 
into England, and was proclaimed king at Carlisle and Penrith. Con- 
trary to his hopes, few joined him. He was overtaken by Cromwell at 



270 MODERN HISTORY. 

Worcester, and thoroughly defeated, with the loss or dispersion of his 
entire army. After wandering six weeks in various disguises, he made 
his escape to France. 

9. The Commonwealth was now established. Order and confidence re- 
turned; commerce, long depressed by the monopolies and exactions of 
the two preceding reigns and the insecurity of civil war, revived. A 
quarrel with the Dutch concerning the herring fisheries of the Scottish 
coast led to a war whose field was the ocean and whose prize the com- 
merce of the world. England declared herself Mistress of the Seas; 
but Holland, by reason of her distant foreign possessions, had a far more 
numerous and effective marine. "English mariners sought employment 
in Dutch vessels, while English ships lay rotting at the wharves." The 
"Navigation Act" passed by the British Parliament in 1652, prohibited 
any foreign vessel from bringing a cargo into English ports unless it were 
of the products of the country whence the vessel came. As the products 
of Holland were few but her ships many, and England her best market, 
this act was evidently a destructive blow to her carrying trade. 

10. After a summer of frequent but indecisive skirmishes among the 
Orkneys and Hebrides, the Dutch admiral Van Tromp appeared, late in 
November, off" the Naze. He was met by the English under Blake, and a 

furious combat ended with the retreat of the latter, after 
great loss, into tlie Thames. Van Tromp then placed a 
broom at his mast-head and sailed up and down the Channel, as if to 
sweep the English from the seas. A four days' battle the next February 
was indecisive ; but in June and July, 1653, Blake and Monk gained great 
victories over Van Tromp, in the latter of which the Dutch admiral was 
killed. The war was virtually at an end, though peace was not signed 
until April, 1654. 

11. The remnant of the Long Parliament had by this time forfeited the 
confidence of the English people, who saw themselves on the verge of an- 
archy amid the conflicts of rival sects and parties. Cromwell relieved 
many anxieties when he put an end to its existence by military force. A 
new assembly of 140 members, called the Little Parliament, was convoked 
by his own authority. It afterward acquired the nickname "Barebone's 
Parliament" from one of its most fanatical members. After five months' 

sitting, it resigned its authority to a council of officers, who 
requested Cromwell to assume the title and character of 

"Lord Protector, of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and 

Ireland." 

12. No man ever lived who appeared to his contemporaries and to 
succeeding generations under more directly opposite colors than Oliver 
Cromwell. A late celebrated historian calls him "the greatest prince 
that ever ruled England," " the greatest prince and soldier of the age." 



OLIVER CROMWELL, PBOTECTOB. 271 

On the other hand, extreme royalists and lawless republicans have joined 
the profligate skeptics of Charles II. 's court in branding him with the 
names of " usurper, traitor, hypocrite, and fanatic ; " and until very re- 
cently their verdict has doubtless had the predominant influence upon 
public opinion. Without clearing him from the charge of personal ambi- 
tion — a trait which is certainly not inconsistent with great virtues and 
great talents, if, indeed, it is often separated from the latter — we find 
his usurpation extenuated by the stern necessities of the time and by his 
unsurpassed ability and disposition to govern well. No contemporary 
king equaled him in equity of intention; not one — even the "Grand 
Monarch " himself — excelled him in the eflSciency of his administration. 
England, depressed at home and despised abroad during the reigns of 
the first two Stuarts, now assumed her true position in the foremost rank 
of Christian powers, as the protectress of Protestant interests. Every 
nation prized her friendship and dreaded her enmity. Mazarin courted 
her alliance by expelling the Stuart princes, the near relations of his 
king, from France, and by ceding the port of Dunkirk, then nearly the 
most important on the German Ocean, when it had been taken by the 
combined French and English forces. Spain eagerly sought the same end, 
but demurred at Cromwell's conditions, which required her to abolish the 
Inquisition, and grant to English merchants free trade with her American 
colonies. The Spanish embassador justly remarked that these two conces- 
sions would be equivalent to putting out the two eyes of Philip IV. 

13. In his home-rule, Cromwell found it impossible to exercise his new 
and undefined power within the constitutional limits which he had set 
to it. The first parliament called under his Protectorate, disputed his 
authority, reversed his acts of toleration, and left him at its dissolution 
unprovided with funds to support the army and navy or the necessary 
expenses of the state. The court of Charles II., now at Cologne, now at 
Brussels, availed itself of these dissensions to excite seditions in England ; 
and the discovery of their plots led Cromwell to more arbitrary measures. 
England was divided into ten — afterward eleven — military districts, 
each governed by a major-general of extreme republican principles. A 
contribution of one-tenth to the service of the government was levied 
upon the estates of rich and disaffected royalists ; and prisoners taken in 
a rebellion were transported to the Barbadoes. 

14. Cromwell emulated the policy of Elizabeth in fostering the navy. 
The famous Admiral Blake caused his flag to be respected in the Medi- 
terranean equally by the Pope, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the 
pirates of the African coast. Algiers and Tripoli released their Christian 
captives at his demand, and Tunis was soon bombarded into submission. 
Venables and Penn failed in their attempt upon St. Domingo, but they 
conquered Jamaica, thus gaining for England an important foot-hold in 



272 3I0DERN HISTOIiY. 

the West Indies. Blake gained a great victory over the Spaniards off 
Cadiz, and tlie next year (1657) destroyed their entire fleet in the harbor 
of Santa Cruz. Being called home to rcceive-the thanks of Parliament, he 
died of disease within sight of the English coast. The treasure taken from 
the Spaniards relieving the immediate necessities of the government, Crom- 
well dismissed the eleven major-generals and adopted a less arbitrary policy. 

15. After long discussion in Parliament, the Protector was desired to 
assume the royal title and dignity. But this would liaVe oftended the 
army and all extreme republicans, and Cromwell declined it. A new 
Instrument of Government gave him, however, all the essential rights of 
sovereignty. He received an oath of allegiance from each member of 
Parliament, and was publicly invested with the purple robe, the scepter 
and the sword, according to the usual forms of a royal coronation. An 
Upper House of Parliament, including only seven of the old nobility, 
was now organized. The court at Brussels was more active than ever in 
its plots of assassination ; but its desires were accomplished by more 
natural and peaceful means. On the 3d of September, 1658, the anni- 
versary of his victories of Dunbar and Worcester, the Protector died. 

10. His son Richard, whom with his dying breath Oliver had appointed 
his successor, was recognized by the Parliament. But his gentle and 
somewhat indolent nature was wholly unfit to deal with those discordant 
elements of the army and people which his father had held in their re- 
spective places with iron hand. A council of military officers dissolved 
the Parliament. Richard Cromwell retired to his estate in 

April, 1659. 

the country. Forty-two members of the Long Parliament 
assembled and took upon themselves the limctions of government. A 
royalist insurrection was defeated by General Lambert at Chester; but 
fresh conflicts between the military and civil authorities led soon to the 
result sought by the insurgents. Charles II. was watching at once Avith 
trembling anxiety the revolutions in England and the conferences of the 
French and Spanish embassadors on an island in the Bidassoa, hoping 
that the Treaty of the Pyrenees, concluded this year, would lead to 
a combined action of the two kingdoms for his restoration. The re- 
sult was better for himself and for England than if his hopes had been 
fulfilled ; for the reestablishment of Romanism, with the surrender of 
Jamaica, Dunkirk, and the Channel Islands, would probably have been 
the price demanded by the contracting powers for their aid. The will 
of the English people recalled their sovereign without such humiliating 
concessions. See § 26. 

17. General Monk, who had been governor of Scotland under Crom- 
well, had an active though at first a secret part in promoting the king's 
return. Under pretense of an ardent zeal for a republic, he gained ab- 
solute control of London. The remnant of the Long Parliament was 



THE RESTORATION IN ENGLAND. 273 

dissolved, and writs were issued for a new election. The Royalists had 
a majority in the new Houses, which met April 26, 1660. Letters were 
received from Charles II. promising amnesty and toleration to all his 
" subjects." In return he was proclaimed king ; and such was the fear 
of exciting discord by long debate, that no limits or conditions were im- 
posed upon his assumption of power. Three weeks later 
the king, with his train of cavaliers and counselors, arrived 
at London. After twenty years of civil conflict the nation welcomed 
the return of settled government with transports of joy, and its gener- 
ous confidence was undiminished by the glaring defects of the king's 
character. To spare him all temptation to illegal exactions, his yearly 
revenues were made far more liberal than those of his father. 

18. Ignoring the Commonwealth, Charles dated all the Acts of the 
Restoration in the twelfth year of his reign. A petty revenge was exe- 
cuted upon the lifeless remains of Oliver Cromwell, of General Ireton, 
his son-in-law, and of Bradshaw, the judge who had pronounced sentence 
upon Charles I. They were dragged from their tombs in Westminster 
Abbey and hung upon the gallows at Tyburn. All the regicides — those 
who had signed the death-warrant of Charles I. — with five others, were 
excepted from the amnesty. Of twenty-nine persons who were tried as 
traitors, ten were executed, and the rest imprisoned for life. The illus- 
trious chancellor, Lord Clarendon — a faithful and invaluable friend of 
Charles in all his adversities, though his virtues drew upon him the ridi- 
cule of a dissolute court — honored himself by insisting upon the strict 
execution of the remaining articles of the Act of Amnesty and Indem- 
nity. The king's promise of religious toleration proved less binding. Not 
only was the " Solemn League and Covenant " burnt by the hangman, 
but more than 2,000 clergymen were ejected from their parishes, and 
subsequent acts against the " Non-conformists " amounted to a bitter per- 
secution. Scotland was gratified by a separate assembly, commonly called 
the " Drunken Parliament," which sentenced the Marquis of Argyle, the 
great leader of the Covenanters, to a traitor's death. 

19. The shameless profligacy of the court went far to cure the " be- 
sotted loyalty" of the nation. To support his wild excesses, Charles 
became a regular pensioner of Louis XIV., and even sold to him the port 
of Dunkirk — a sacrifice of national pride which was commonly consid- 
ered equally disastrous and infinitely more disgraceful than the loss of 
Calais. The royalist Pepys wrote : " It is strange how every body do now- 
adays reflect upon Oliver, and commend him, what brave things he did, 
and made all the neighbour princes fear him, while here a prince, come 
in with all the love and prayers and good liking of his people, * * * 
hath lost all so soon, that it is a miracle what way a man could devise 
to lose so much in so little time." 

M. H.— 18. 



274 " MODERN HISTORY. 



E,E C-A.:E>IT"U"Xj.A.TI02sr. 

The Reformation in England undermines the principle of passive obedience to kings. 
Decline under the iirst of the Stuarts. Arbitrary exactions of Charles I. lead to the de- 
termined resistance of the Long Parliament. His attempted arrest of the five members 
drives the opposition into armed resistance. Battles of Marston Moor, Newbury, and 
Naseby are disastrous to the king. Cromwell and the Independents gain chief power; 
Charles I. is imprisoned, tried for high treason, condemned, and beheaded. Charles II. 
proclaimed in Scotland and Iceland. The latter country subdued by the massacres of 
Drogheda and Wexford, and the foreign enlistment of most of the disaffected. Duplicity 
of Charles II. with the Scots ; death of the INIarquis of Montrose. Cromwell defeats the 
Scots at Dunbar, and Charles himself at Worcester. Establishment of the Commonwealth. 
War with the Dutch. Van Tromp at first victorious, afterward defeated by Blake. Crom- 
well expels the Long Parliament, calls another, which makes him Protector. Rise of the 
foreign fame of England under the Protectorate. Blake victorious in the Mediterranean 
and among the West Indies. Capture of Jamaica. Arbitrary home-rule of Cromwell oc- 
casioned by parliamentary opposition and royalist schemes of assassination. He declines 
the name but accepts the power of king ; revives the House of Lords ; dies of disease at 
Whitehall ; is succeeded by his son Richard. The abdication of Richard followed by re- 
turn of Charles II. and restoration of monarchy. Execution of ten regicides and of the 
Marquis of Argyle. Persecution of Non-conformists. Licentiousness of the court, and 
venal subserviency of the king to the interests of France. 



The Reign of Louis XIV. 

20. The only European powers left unpacified by the Treaty of West- 
phalia were France and Spain. The latter, relieved at length of her 
eighty years' war with the United Netherlands, was able to renew oper- 
ations with greater prospect of success; while the former was paralyzed 
by all the troubles of a minority. The boundless rapacity of Mazarin 
and his ignorance or disregard of French laws, disgusted the national 
party ; while the arrogance of Conde, who presumed upon his great mili- 
tary services, offended the court. The result was the civil war of the Fronde. 
Its prime mover was the abbe Gondi, afterward Cardinal de Eetz ; but many 
great nobles and fine ladies of the court took an active part in the dis- 
turbances. The queen-regent and her son withdrew from Paris, and, in 
the impossibility of levying taxes, were often destitute of the common 
comforts of life. This early experience of privation, and his resentment 
against the popular leaders, doubtless gave an impulse to the young king's 
ambition of absolute power. 

21. The domestic war soon became part of the international conflict. 
Conde sold his services to the king of Spain, and marching fi'om Guienne, 
defeated the royal army at Bleneau. The same consummate genius which 
had inspired terror in the enemies of France, exerted itself to waste and 
consume the forces of the kingdom. A battle in the suburbs of the 
capital was decided in favor of Conde by the warlike Mademoiselle de 
Montpensier, daughter of the Duke of Orleans, who with her own hands 
directed the guns of the Bastile upon the forces of the king. The city 



THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 275 

opened its gates to the prince ; a new government was organized in which 
the Duke of Orleans became lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and Conde 
commander-in-chief of its armies. Mazarin retired from office. But De 
Eetz, who had now reconciled himself with the court, soon effected an- 
other revolution, which drove Conde from the capital. This time he 
repaired to Flanders, and became generalissimo of the Spanish forces. 

22. The French king and his mother reentered Paris. Conde was sen- 
tenced by the Parliament to a traitor's death ; the Duke of Orleans was 
exiled to Blois; De Eetz, whose ambition had by this time overreached 
itself, was imprisoned and passed the rest of his life in obscurity. Maz- 
arin was recalled, and the Fronde was ended. This civil war, whose 
details are too tedious to be related at length, is remarkable chiefly as 
having been the last struggle of the French nobility with the crown. 
Thenceforth all the privileged orders in the nation made common cause; 
the nobles were content to revolve as obedient satellites around the king 
and add their splendor to his court. The same questions had been raised 
in France and England, to meet directly opposite solutions. In the isl- 
and kingdom both royalty and aristocracy had been overthrown, though 
but for a short time, and in the restored monarchy absolutism soon 
yielded to the just supremacy of law. In France, aristocracy joined with 
royalty to trample down the hopes and righteous demands of the people. 

23. Spain, meanwhile, had profited by the domestic troubles of her 
enemy. Barcelona was taken after a blockade of thirteen months ; and 
all Catalonia, after a nominal but contested independence of as many 
years, was reunited to the Spanish dominions. Casale in Italy, and Dun- 
kirk, Ypres, and Gravelines, on the side of the Netherlands, were lost to 
France. Conde, at the head of the Spanish forces, infused new energy 
into the war. He was worthily opposed by Turenne, and for six years 
the two great commanders rivaled each other in feats of generalship. In 
1654, England broke her peace with Spain, captured Jamaica, and sent 
forth fleets to prey upon Spanish -American commerce. The persecution 
bf the Vaudois prevented an alliance of England with France until 
Mazarin, upon the peremptory demand of Cromwell, had obtained from 
the duke of Savoy pardon and indemnity for his oppressed subjects. An 
alliance was then made which threw the whole power of England into 
the French scale. The Battle of the Dunes resulted in the total defeat 
of the Spanish governor of the Netherlands, and the capture 'of Dunkirk, 
which by the terms of the treaty was made over to England. All Flan- 
ders, to the neighborhood of Brussels, soon fell into the power of France ; 
and still more important events in Germany had meanwhile disposed the 
Spanish government to seek for peace. 

24. Ever since the Treaty of Westphalia, the emperor Ferdinand III., 
though nominally at peace with France, had been indirectly furnishing 



276 MODERN HISTORY. 

men and money to the Spaniards. Duke Charles of Lorraine, having 
been expelled from his duchy by the French, gladly enlisted imperial 
troops under his own colors, and gained many advantages in Flanders 
and upon the German borders. To guard against his depredations, the 
four Rhenish electors, with the bishop of Miinster, formed a " Catholic 
League," for the professed purpose of carrying out the Treaty of West- 
phalia. A " Protestant League " was formed with the same design in 
northern Germany. The emperor, intimidated by these coalitions, caused 
the treaty to be confirmed in 1654, by the Diet at Ratisbon. 

25. Ferdinand III. died in 1657, and Mazarin, with all the German 
princes who were in the interest of France, resolved to prevent the con- 
ferring of the imperial crown upon another member of the Austrian 
family. Mazarin would gladly have obtained it for Louis XIV., but this 
proving impossible, the French interest was exerted in behalf of the 
young elector of Bavaria. The eldest son of Ferdinand III. had died 
before his father, and the second son, Leopold, had been educated only 
for the Church. He received the electoral votes, however, about sixteen 
months after his father's death. The French and their allies, unable to 
defeat his election, imposed upon him the most rigid conditions concern- 
ing the wars then in progress ; and he solemnly engaged neither to 
render aid, secret or open, to the enemies of France, nor to interfere in 
Italy or the Netherlands. The fulfillment of this engagement was in- 
sured by the consolidation of the two Leagues above mentioned into one, 
called the " Rhenish League," under the protection of Louis XIV. The 
common forces were called "The army of His Most Christian Majesty 
and of the Allied Electors and Princes." 

26. Spain, thus deprived of help from the Empire, sought peace with 

France. It was accomplished, after long negotiations, by 
the Treaty of the Pyrenees, and sealed by a marriage of 
Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the king of 
Spain. An important clause in the contract was the renunciation by 
the Infanta of all her rights to the Sjaanish crown, even in case of her 
brother's death. By the two treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, 
the supremacy of France in European diplomacy was secured, and Spain 
resigned the precedence which she had claimed since the reign of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella. Mazarin died in March, 1661, and Louis XIV., 
whose ambition was becoming impatient of restraint, made, the next day, 
the important announcement to his council, " For the future, I shall be 
my own prime minister." 

27. He entered at once upon that course of diligent application to 
business which constituted, perhaps, the main secret of his success. From 
the beginning to the end of his reign, he spent eight hours each day in 
the actual labor of governing. The disordered exchequer soon felt the 



WAR FOR THE SPANISH NETHERLANDS. 277 

master-hand. The finance minister, Fouquet, who had enormously en- 
riched himself by falsifying the public accounts, was condemned to im- 
prisonment for life. He was succeeded by the celebrated Colbert, a man 
of stainless honesty and of such marked ability that, though the burden of 
taxation was diminished, the royal treasury was kept full, even during 
the most exhausting wars. This was done by introducing strict order 
and economy into every department of the government, and by a far- 
reaching and enlightened encouragement of industry which multiplied 
the sources of wealth, and made the royal demands easier to be borne. 

28. The dignity of Louis did not suffer for want of assertion. The 
Spanish embassador at London having taken precedence of the French, 
Philip IV. was compelled to make a humble apology, and promise by a 
special envoy, in the presence of the whole diplomatic body at the 
French court, never more to infringe the claims of His Most Christian 
Majesty. Pope Alexander VII. underwent a similar humiliation ; for his 
Corsican guard having insulted the French embassador at Rome, His 
Holiness was compelled to send messengers over the Alps to beg pardon 
in the most prostrate terms ; to disband his guard and to erect a monu- 
ment in commemoration of the event. Louis was already preparing a 
more serious assault upon the Spanish pretensions. Philip IV. having 
died in 1666, Louis claimed the Spanish Netherlands, with Luxembourg 
and Franche Comte, in right of his wife. He had already fortified him- 
self by a treaty of commerce and alliance with the Dutch, and by the 
purchase of Dunkirk from the English (see § 19). 

29. A war between his two allies delayed his operations. Charles 11. 
desired to place his nephew, the young Prince of Orange, at the head of 
the Dutch Eepublic ; but this scheme was firmly opposed by the Grand 
Pensionary De Witt, and the -consequent division of parties nearly proved 
fatal to the independence of Holland. The war broke out in 1664, though 
not formally declared until the following year. The Dutch possessions 
on the Hudson Eiver in America were seized by the English and re- 
named for the king's brother, the Duke of York and Albany. In June, 
1665, the Dutch fleet was totally defeated by the Duke of York in a 
battle near Lowestoff^. The bishop of Miinster, an ally and pensioner of 
England, laid waste the Dutch territories from the eastward, until the 
German allies of Holland joined the king of France in compelling him 
to lay down his arms. A severe but indecisive battle was fought four 

days by the English and Dutch fleets off" the North Fore- ^ ,,,,,.„„ 
J J o _ June 11-14, 1666. 

land. In a subsequent action the English were victorious, 
but their domestic calamities — the Plague and the Great Fire at Lon- 
don — now disposed them to peace. During the progress of negotiations, 
the Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames and the Medway, destroyed many 
ships, captured Sheerness and threatened London. 



278 MODERN HISTORY. 

30. The Peace of Breda, July 31', 1667, was effected by three treaties 
concluded by England with Holland, France, and Denmark. New York 
and New Jersey were secured to the first-named power, but the other co- 
lonial possessions of the Dutch were restored or left undisturbed. Louis 
XIV. had, meanwhile, astonished Europe by a sudden march into the 
Spanish Netherlands, where in the course of one summer most of the im- 
portant places in the Walloon provinces surrendered with little or no re- 
sistance. The queen-regent of Spain was blinded by his pacific assurances 
until within a few days of the actual invasion. In the manifesto which the 
Grand Monarch then addressed to her in common with all the European 
rulers, he claimed the Spanish Netherlands not only in right of his queen, 
Maria Theresa, as the eldest child of Philip IV., but on the ground of a 
" natural claim " of the French kings to all which had ever belonged to 
the Prankish monarchy ! Franche Comte was conquered the next winter 
by the Prince of Conde, who had now returned to his allegiance, having 
been pardoned and restored to his government of ducal Burgundy by the 
terms of the treaty of the Pyrenees. 

31. England, Holland, and Sweden, alarmed by the arrogant preten- 
sions of Louis XIV., now formed the Triple Alliance, with the purpose 
of setting a limit to his aggressions. Spain, at the last point of exhaust- 
ion, was unable to resist the dismemberment of her dominions, and in 
May, 1668, a definitive treaty was signed at Aix-la-Chapelle by which 
Louis restored Franche Comte, but retained all his conquests in the Neth- 
erlands. The Dutch Eepublic was now at the height of her glory and 
prosperity — the protectress of the great power which by her heroic strug- 
gle for independence she had most contributed to humble, the successful 
rival of England in the dominion of the seas, the deliverer of Denmark 
from the ambitious grasp of Sweden (see § 46), and able to interpose 
a barrier to the ambitious career of Louis himself. The Grand Monarch, 
however, was not likely to forgive the intervention which had cut short 
his conquest of the entire Spanish dominion in the Low Countries. As 
the champion of absolute kingly power, he cherished an especial hatred 
toward the Republic, which afforded a generous asylum to all exiles from 
civil or religious tyranny. 

32. By skillful bribery, Louis gained the neutrality of the emperor and 
the close adhesion of England, Sweden, and many of the German princes. 
The " Great Elector," Frederic William of Brandenburg, was the faithful 
ally of Holland; while the electors of Mentz, Treves, and Saxony, with 
the margrave of Baireuth, formed a league for the defense of the Empire. 
Holland stood almost alone against the world, but Spain, recently deliv- 
ered from the corrupt and incompetent government of the Jesuit min- 
ister Niethard, made an alliance with the States in December, 1671. The 
Prince of Orange, now twenty-one years of age, was appointed Captain- 



INVASION OF HOLLAND. 279 

General for the first campaign. England and France at nearly the same 
time declared war against Holland, and equally without honorable reason. 
The French army of 200,000 men crossed the lower Rhine in three divis- 
ions, and in the course of a few weeks had occupied the entire provinces 
of Guelders, Utrecht, and Overyssel, with part of Holland. The king, at 
the head of the main division, was attended by Louvois, his minister of 
war, and Vauban, the famous military engineer. 

33. The Dutch were for the moment paralyzed with dismay. "Every 
man seemed to have received sentence of death." In forlorn hope of 
securing what remained to them, De Witt offered the most submissive 
terms, but the invader's reply was so haughty and insulting that it 
aroused a determination to defend the country to the last breath of its 
last inhabitant. In the popular fury, the two De Witts — the Grand 
Pensionary and his brother the admiral — were murdered; and dictato- 
rial powers were conferred upon the young Prince of Orange, with the 
oflBices of Stadtholder, Captain-General, and Admiral, for life. The prince 
proposed in an assembly of the States, that rather than yield to the de- 
mands of Louis, they should abandon their country, and embarking on 
board their fleet, with wives, children, and what movable property they 
could secure, seek on the other side of the globe new homes among the 
tropical possessions of the Eepublic. 

34. The tide soon turned in favor of the Dutch, who had at least held 
their own at sea, in contests with the combined English and French fleets. 
The progress of the French army was arrested by the opening of the 
sluices around Amsterdam, which laid that region of country under 
water, and allowed the Dutch fleet to approach their capital for its de- 
fense. The emperor, in spite of his promised neutrality, offered to aid 
the Eepublic on certain conditions; and the imperial general Montecu- 
culi joined the elector of Brandenburg with 12,000 men. Turenne, by 
his masterly maneuvers on the Ehine, prevented their junction with the 
Prince of Orange, and even pursued the elector in his retreat as far as 
the Elbe; but the diversion was nevertheless of some advantage to the 
Dutch. The freezing of the canals enabled Marshal Luxembourg to in- 
vade Holland the next winter; but a sudden thaw compelled him to 
retreat without effecting a conquest. 

35. Maestricht and Treves were taken by the French in 1673 ; and 
Louis in person occupied the ten imperial cities in Alsace (see Book III., 
§ 363), which he reduced to absolute subjection, compelling them to 
renounce the privileges guaranteed by the Treaty of Westphalia. A 
closer alliance of the Dutch with the Empire and with Spain, and the 
firm establishment of the allies on the Ehine by the capture of Bonn, 
compelled the French in the following winter to evacuate Holland, re- 
taining of all their conquests only Grave and Maestricht. By the treaty 



280 MODERN HISTORY. ( 

of Westminster, Feb., 1674, England made peace with the Eepublic, and 
agreed to a mutual restitution of conquests; Sweden alone remained in 
alliance with France. 

36. The campaign of 1674 was, nevertheless, favorable to that country. 
Franche Comte was reconquered, and the French frontier permanently 
extended to the Jura. Turenne ravaged the Palatinate with great bar- 
barity, while he held the imperialists in. check, and finally wrested Alsace 
from their grasp. The English colonel Churchill — afterward the famous 
Duke of Marlborough — served under him in this campaign. The next 
year was to see three principal actors withdrawn from the military stage : 
Turenne by a cannon-ball, which ended his life near Salzbach, while he 
was reconnoitering for a battle which was never to take place ; Conde and 
Montecuculi by the growing infirmities of age and disease. 

37. In 1676, the main activity of the war was transferred to the Medi- 
terranean, and in three naval battles near Sicily, the French were com- 
pletely victorious. In the second of these battles, the brave De Euyter 
received his death-wound. The campaign on land was fortunate for the 
French. In April, 1677, the Prince of Orange sustained a severe defeat 
at Cassel, while marching to the relief of St. Omer. The prince was the 
consistent, life-long opponent of Louis XIV., their relative positions in the 
European States-System being nearly the same with those of Elizabeth of 
England and Philip of Spain a century before. The English Parliament 
was warmly in favor of the prince ; but Charles II. had just sold himself 
anew to the king of France for a pension of 200,000 livres, and promised 
to make no alliance without Louis' consent. He was nevertheless com- 
pelled by the Parliament to declare war against France, and to confirm 
his alliance with the States by the marriage of his niece, Mary of York, 
with the Prince of Orange. 

38. It was agreed to force the French king to accept terms of peace. 
While negotiations were pending, Louis seized the great city of Ghent, 
and Ypres ; thus gaining the power to dictate his own terms. The Peace 
of Nimeguen was signed August 14, 1678; Spain and the emperor ac- 
ceded a few months later. The greatest losses of the war had fallen upon 
Spain, which was compelled to cede Franche Comte and the region after- 
ward known as French Flanders. Holland lost her settlements in Sene- 
gal and Guiana, which had been taken by the French. The Duke of 
Lorraine was offered the restoration of his dominions only on condition 
of granting to Louis XIV. four military roads, each half a league in 
breadth, from France into Germany. Rather than accept these humili- 
ating terms, he exiled himself for life from his paternal estates. 

The glory of Louis the Great was now at its height. But the insolence 
of his pretensions had already excited an enmity throughout Europe 
which clouded his last days with disappointment and regret. 



THE NORTHERN NATIONS. 281 



Civil war of the Fronde during minority of Louis XIV. Prince of Cond6 enters the 
service of Spain. With close of the Fronde ends the long conflict between royal and 
feudal power in France. Catalonia is subdued ; Spanish army under Cond6 gains many 
victories over the French in the Netherlands. Persecution of the Vaudois being discon- 
tinued at the demand of Cromwell, the forces of the English Commonwealth, added to 
those of France, gain the Battle of the Dunes. Dunkirk surrendered to England. The 
Duke of Lorraine makes war in Spanish interest on the western borders of the Empire. 
Death of Ferdinand III. ; French opposition to Leopold, who nevertheless becomes em- 
peror ; his power limited by the Rhenish League. Treaty of the Pyrenees transfers the 
leadership of European diplomacy from Spain to France. Louis XIV. marries the Span- 
ish Infanta; assumes direct control of affairs upon death of Mazarin. Colbert's thrifty 
administration. Louis claims Spanish Netherlands and other possessions in right of his 
wife. Naval war between England and Holland. New Amsterdam becomes New York. 
Peace of Breda. Louis surprises the Walloon provinces. Triple alliance of England, 
Sweden, and Holland forces him to accept the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. He bribes the 
first two powers to aid or permit his vengeance against the Dutch. Murder of the De 
Witts. Prince of Orange becomes Stadtholder and Dictator. Nearly all Europe involved 
in the war. Brandenburg and afterward England and the Empire take sides with Hol- 
land. Alsace and Franche Comt6 conquered and held by France. Death of Turenne ; 
retirement of Condfi and Montecuculi. Increase of French naval power ; three victories in 
the Mediterranean. Prince of Orange defeated at Cassel ; he marries the daughter of the 
Duke of York. Treaty of Nimeguen restores peace and places Louis XIV. at the height of 
his power. 

The Northern Nations. 

39. In the nortli of Europe, important events had meanwhile taken 
place. Christina of Sweden displayed during the first years of her reign 
a wisdom, firmness, and manifold ability which astonished her gray-haired 
counselors. Her influence in favor of peace was felt in the Treaty of 
Westphalia. Her extraordinary accomplishments won the admiration of 
the learned foreigners who thronged her court, among others of the 
French philosopher, Descartes. Unhappily the powers of her mind 
were not balanced and supported by steadiness of purpose. She wasted 
her revenues in fantastic entertainments, and bestowed the crown-lands 
on her favorite courtiers, who in the subsequent reign employed her gifts 
only to oppose the royal prerogatives. At length she became weary of 
the cares of state, and naming her cousin, Charles Gustavus, as her suc- 
cessor, abdicated the throne in the twenty-eighth year of her 

age, and sought freedom in a milder climate. At Innsbruck, 
she abjured her father's faith and was received into the Eoman Church. 
During the thirty-five remaining years of her life, she wandered over a 
great part of the continent and twice revisited Sweden, but ultimately 
■ died at Eome in 1689. 

40. Charles X. found his kingdom still exhausted by its efforts in the 
Thirty Years' War, as well as by the lavish expenditures of Christina ; 
yet his ambition aimed at nothing short of supremacy in northern Europe 



282 MODERN HISTORY. 

and the conversion of the Baltic into a mere Swedish lake. The weak- 
ness of Denmark and Poland seemed to flatter his hopes. In the latter 
kingdom — or "Republic," as it was called by the Poles themselves — all 
real power lay in the hands of the nobles; for the Diet, chosen by and 
from that class alone, not only elected the king, but made the laws and in 
one sense executed them, all officers of state being responsible to it and 
not to the sovereign. When discussions in the Diet failed of peaceable 
solution, the nobles had a constitutional right to levy armies and settle 
their differences by force. Sometimes a General Confederation was formed 
under a military dictatorship, which suspended or absorbed into itself all 
the regular functions of government. 

41. John Casimir (A. D. 1648-1668), a son of Sigismund III. (see Book 
III., § 317), was destitute of the tact, firmness, and versatility of resources 
required for the leadership of so turbulent and disorganized a nation. 
Several provinces threatened to revolt and place themselves under foreign 
protection; and the vice-chancellor, taking refuge at the Swedish court, 
urged Charles X. to interfere and deliver the Poles from a dominion 
which they hated. The great empire of Eussia was another formidable 
neighbor of the Polish king. Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, had 
already begun that policy of civilizing his nation and assuming his just 
place in the European States-System, which was more especially to distin- 
guish his son, Peter the Great. A revolt of the Cossacks of the Ukraine, 
against the Polish kingdom, to which they had been subjected since A. D. 
1386, gave Alexis a pretext for war. United to the Russians by identity 
of race, language, and religion, the Cossacks claimed the protection of the 
Czar, who was only too willing to accept their allegiance. 

42. Three Russian armies were soon in the field — one, led by the Czar 
in person, besieged and captured Smolensko and several other towns; a 
second invaded Lithuania, and a third occupied the entire Ukraine. The 
next year, two Swedish armies entered Poland, while their fleet blockaded 

the free city of Dantzic. Charles X. defeated John Casimir 
and received the surrender of Warsaw. The Polish army 
and most of the nobility took oaths of allegiance to the Swedish king: 
Cracow opened its gates, and the province of Lithuania, though chiefly 
occupied by Russians, acknowledged him as its sovereign. A party in the 
Senate offered the crown of Poland to the emperor, but a majority in the 
kingdom inclined to Charles X. 

43. At this juncture, the great elector, Frederic William of Branden- 
burg, having allied himself with John Casimir, marched an army into 
West Prussia, with a view to protect that duchy from the Swedes. He 
was defeated by Charles X. in person, and was compelled to acknowledge 
himself the vassal of Sweden instead of Poland. In subsequent treaties, 
the embarrassments of the Swedish king enabled the elector to secure the 



CHARLES X. OF SWEDEN. 283 

full sovereignty of eastern or ducal Prussia, thus laying the corner-stone 
of a powerful monarchy. John Casimir, meanwhile, mustered an army 
of Poles and Tartars for the recapture of Warsaw. It surrendered June 
21, 1656; but was recovered, the following month, for the Swedish king 
and the elector by a three days' battle in its vicinity. 

44. If the enemies of Poland had been agreed, the dissolution of that 
kingdom would have been hastened by more than a century; but the 
Czar, now jealous of the Swedes, invaded their province of Livonia with 
100,000 men, while he sent another army to ravage Ingria, Carelia, and 
Finland. The emperor Leopold and the king of Denmark, also alarmed 
or offended by the progress of Charles X., allied themselves with John 
Casimir to oppose that "Pyrrhus of the North." Crom- 
well favored Sweden, though he offered no active aid, but ^' ^' '^^^'' 
George Eagotzki, Prince of Transylvania, made a close offensive alliance 
with Charles X., in the hope of himself obtaining the crown of Poland, 
or at least the provinces of Red Eussia, Podolia, Volhynia, and a large 
southern portion of that kingdom. The elector of Brandenburg withdrew 
his contingent force from the Swedish army and made peace with Poland, 
on being guaranteed his title of Sovereign Duke and the possession of 
Prussia as an independent state. 

45. By a sudden and rapid march, Charles X. appeared with his veter- 
ans upon the Danish border, and dispatching his general Wrangel to 
occupy the duchy of Bremen, he overran the territories of Holstein and 
Schleswig, almost without encountering resistance. Fredericsodde was 
taken by siege, Oct. 24; and as soon as a winter of unusual severity, even 
for those regions, had covered the Baltic with ice, he began a remarkable 
series of maneuvers among the islands of the Sound by leading cavalry and 
artillery across the solid surface of the two Belts, capturing Fvinen, Lange- 
land, Laaland, Falster, and finally passing over into Zealand. Copen- 
hagen, poorly fortified and taken by surprise, was at his mercy. But 
France and England now intervened, and mediated the 

treaty of Roskild, by which Denmark ceded to Sweden 

some of her most important islands, and abandoned all her offensive 

alliances. 

46. The ambition of Charles X. had grown by indulgence, and he 
dreamed not only of ruling the whole region of the Baltic, but of 
marching, like Alaric, with an overwhelming host to Italy, and founding 
there a new kingdom of the Goths. Early in August he was again in 
the field, with the pretense that Frederic III. of Denmark had failed to 
fulfill all the conditions of the treaty of Eoskild. The siege of Kronen- 
berg, which he captured Sept. 5, gave the Danes time to strengthen the 
fortifications of Copenhagen, so that it could hold out until a Dutch 
fleet arrived to its relief The Swedes then turned the siege of the 



284 MODERN HISTORY. 

capital into a blockade, but they were themselves besieged by the Dutch 
and Danish fleets which guarded the sea, while on land the elector of 
Brandenburg with a combined force of Poles, Austrians, and his own 
subjects, drove the Swedes from Jutland and captured most of the towns 
in Swedish Pomerania. Thorn, after eighteen months' siege, surrendered 
to the Poles, Dec, 1658, and in Prussia only the two towns of Elbing and 
Marienburg remained to Charles X. 

47. The Maritime Powers now interfered to put an end to a war which 
embarrassed their commerce by closing the ports of the Baltic. But the 
sudden, death of Charles X., Feb., 1660, removed the main cause of dis- 
turbance. His son and heir was but four years old. The queen-regent, 
with her Council of State, immediately entered into negotiations with the 

T 1 ifirn- ^^^^^^^ powers, and peace was made respectively with Po- 
land, Denmark, and Eussia, by the three treaties of Oliva, 
' Copenhagen, and Cardis. Poland continued at war with 

Eussia until 1667, when a truce of thirteen years was agreed upon, and 
the Cossacks were then permanently divided into the tribes of the Don 
and the Ukraine — the former under allegiance to the Czar, the latter to 
the king of Poland. In Denmark the year of the peace was marked by 
a bloodless revolution, Avhich changed the elective into a hereditary 
monarchy, and destroyed the excessive power of the nobles. In Sweden, 
on the other hand, the ancient nobility gained great ascendency during 
the long minority of Charles XI. 

48. In 1675, war was renewed by the elector of Brandenburg, who was 
joined by Christian V. of Denmark and aided with a fleet by the Dutch. 
The Swedes were twice defeated within four days at Eathenow and Fehr- 
bellin ; and sustained several great disasters at sea. The island of Eiigen 
was conquered by Denmark, and Stettin, after six months' siege, surren- 
dered to the elector of Brandenburg. Christian V. was, however, defeated, 
in 1676, at Halmstadt ; and though the still severer battle of Lunden was 
indecisive, he was disabled by it from any further attempts that year. 
The next summer he suffered a disastrous defeat at Landscrona, though 
his naval force was constantly superior to that of the Swedes. The 
latter, in 1678, invaded ducal Prussia, but without success ; and so great 
were their sufferings, that of their army of 16,000 men only 1,500 re- 
traced their way to Eiga. 

49. The details of this northern war are, however, less important, be- 
cause Louis XIV., who now assumed to dictate terms to all Europe, inter- 

fered, and by treaties signed near Paris, compelled the 
allies to restore to Sweden all their acquisitions. Though 
the latter power thus emerged from a disastrous war with no loss of 
territory, yet her navy was destroyed, her treasury emptied, and her in- 
ability to maintain herself without foreign aid rendered clear to the eyes 



TREATY OF VASVAB. 285 

of Europe. In this state of depression, all classes except tlie nobility 
called for a revolution in the government; and in a Diet at Stockholm, 
the clergy, citizens, and peasants adopted a new constitution conferring 
absolute and irresponsible power upon the king. A subsequent Diet in 
1682 required a strict account from all who had administered the finances 
during the young king's minority, or who had held leases of crown-lands 
since the death of Gustavus Adolphus. The prudent measures of Charles 
.XI. during the last years of his reign so far retrieved the resources of his 
kingdom, that his son, Charles XII., was able for a time to reestablish 
the superiority of Sweden in the north. 

50. Before describing the remarkable changes which took place in the 
Russian Empire, we glance for a moment at the relations of Christendom 
with the Turks. Their " War of Candia " with Venice lasted twenty-four 
years (A. D. 1645-1669) ; but its only memorable event was its termina- 
tion in the surrender of the city of Candia, after a siege of two years and 
four months. The French made vain attempts to relieve it. The whole 
island remained nearly two centuries in the undisputed possession of the 
Turks. 

Meanwhile, hostilities broke out afresh, A. D. 1663, between the Empire 
and the Porte ; and Achmet Koproli, the Grand Vizier, invaded Hungary 
with 200,000 men. In spite of the vigorous exertions of Montecuculi, 
Neuhausel and several other fortresses were taken, and Moravia was rav- 
aged by a horde of Tartars who penetrated nearly to Olmiitz. In this 
crisis of peril to all Europe, Sweden, France, the Pope, and the Italian 
states joined in sending contributions of men and money; and with the 
extraordinary supplies voted by the imperial Diet, Montecuculi was able 
to take the field with a formidable army. He routed the Turks in the 
great battle of St. Gothard, near the frontier of Hungary and Styria ; but 
instead of using this advantage by pushing the war with increased energy, 
the Court of Vienna hastened to make a twenty years' truce 
with the invaders. By the treaty of Vasvar, they were per- 
mitted to retain all their conquests, and even received a tribute, disguised 
under the name of a gift, of 200,000 florins. 

51. Among the reasons which forced the emperor to this disgraceful 
treaty, was the enmity of the Hungarians against the House of Austria. 
The civil oppressions and religious persecutions of the latter gave rise to 
repeated attempts at revolt, until in 1678, the young Count Tekeli, more 
fortunate than his predecessors, was able with 12,000 Hungarians to de- 
feat the imperial armies in Upper Hungary, and occupy the whole region 
of the Carpathian Mountains. He allied himself with the Sultan, who 
recognized him as king of Hungary in 1682; and the tmce of Vasvar 
having nearly expired, Kara Mustapha, now Grand Vizier, joined him 
with a large army at Essek and marched upon Vienna. At their ap- 



286 MODERN HISTORY. 

proach, the emperor and his court fled from the capital, followed in a 
single day by sixty thousand persons. 

52. After two months' siege and the loss of 6,000 of its garrison by 
battle or pestilence, Vienna was saved by the arrival of John Sobieski, 
king of Poland. This great warrior had already covered himself with 
glory by his gallant defense of Poland against Cossacks and Tartars; and 
had been raised in 1676, by the acclamations of his countrymen, to the 
throne. Increasing his army by German reinforcements, he numbered 
83,000 men, when the rockets which betokened his arrival upon the 

heights of Kahlenberg kindled new hope in the starving 

fecpt., 1683. 

citizens of Vienna. The next day the Turks were routed 
with great slaughter; and their vast encampments, with treasures of 
money and jewels, as well as horses and materials of war, remained to 
the victors. They were pursued in their retreat and again defeated by 
Sobieski and the Duke of Lorraine ; and the fortress of Gran, which for 
nearly a century and a half had been held by the Turks, was wrested 
from their possession. Kara Mustapha atoned to his enraged sovereign 
by the loss of his head. 

53. The next year the Duke of Lorraine captured Wissegrad, Wait- 
zen, and Pesth, and besieged Buda three months, with a loss of 23,000 
men, but without success. Two years later, after a second siege of three 
months, it was taken by assault and restored to the Hungarians, having 
been 145 years a Mohammedan city. In 1684, the emperor, the king of 
Poland, and the Venetians joined the Pope in what was called a Holy 
League against the Turks ; and the Holy War which followed lasted until 
1699. Austria in three years regained all Hungary, Transylvania, and 
Slavonia. In the battle of Mohacz, Aug., 1687, the Turks were defeated 
upon the field of their former memorable victory, (See Book III., § 122.) 

54. By a change in the Hungarian Constitution, the crown of that 
kingdom was now made hereditary in the House of Austria; and the 
magnates renounced the valued but mischievous privilege, secured to them 
by a charter of Andrew II., A. D. 1222, of taking up arms against their 
sovereign whenever they judged him guilty of having broken his corona- 
tion vow. Imperial garrisons were admitted into all the fortresses of the 
kingdom ; Leopold, in return for these concessions, confirmed the ancient 
privileges of the nation, and granted to all orders and sects of Christians 
the free exercise of their religion. His son, the archduke Joseph, was 
crowned king of Hungary in December, 1687. 

55. The Czar* of Russia — or, as it was still called, Muscovy — joined 
the League in 1686 ; but his eiforts to conquer the Crimea from the 



* The Czar Alexis had died in 1676 ; his son Feodor in 1682. Another son, Ivan, under the 
regency of his sister Sophia, bore the titles of sovereignty until 1689, when Peter the Great, 
half-brother of Feodor and Ivan, assumed the crown. 



E UGENE OF SA VO Y. 287 

Tartars were unavailing. It was reserved for his greater brother, 
Peter, to capture Azov and secure an entrance to the Black Sea. The 
Venetians gained brilliant victories over the Turks in southern and 
central Greece, capturing, among other important but less illustrious 
places, Corinth and Athens. The Parthenon, the greatest architectural 
ornament of the latter city — still perfect in its exquisite proportions as 
in the days of Pericles — was used by the Turks as a powder-magazine. 
During the siege, a bomb from a Venetian vessel fell into the building, 
and its explosion scattered the finely sculptured marbles of the central 
portion to the winds. The conquest of the Morea was completed by the 
Venetian general Morosini in 1690. 

56. The manifold disasters of the Turks in the year 1687, occasioned a 
mutiny in the army and a riot in the capital, resulting in the deposition 
and imprisonment of Mahomet IV., and the elevation of his brother Soly- 
man 11. to the throne. Their humiliation only deepened during the next 
two years: Belgrade was taken by the imperialists, and a great part of 
Bosnia overrun. The Sultan's demands for peace were refused, for the 
emperor now imagined it possible to annihilate the Turkish power in 
Europe and recombine the Eastern and Western Empires. In the cam- 
paign of 1689, these projects seemed almost on the eve of fulfillment. 
Several passes of the Balkan and forts on the Danube were taken by 
the margrave of Baden, who fixed his winter-quarters in Wallachia. 

57. The energy and talents of the new Grand Vizier, Mustapha Koproli, 
son of Achmet, enabled the Turks to recover, in 1690, almost all that they 
had lost. Belgrade was retaken, Temesvar newly provisioned, and a battle 
near Essek gained by the Vizier, while a division of the Turkish army 
entered Transylvania. The next year, however, in the battle of Salan- 
kemen, the Turks were defeated, and Koproli slain. Nothing of impor- 
tance occurred during the next five years, until Mustapha II., becom- 
ing Sultan, crossed the Danube at the head of his armies 

^ ' A. D. 1696. 

and defeated the imperialists at Bega. John Sobieski died 
this year, and the elector Augustus of Saxony, though opposed by a 
majority of the nobles, received the Polish crown through the combined 
influence of the Czar, the emperor, the Jesuits, and the Pope. He was 
succeeded in command of the imperial armies in Hungary by one of the 
greatest generals of an age especially distinguished by military genius 
and science. 

58. Prince Eugene of Savoy, though born a French noble, had been 
offended by Louis XIV., and offering his services to the emperor, exacted 
in later years a bitter revenge. Among his first great exploits was a 
signal overthrow of the Turks at Zeuta on the Theiss (Sept., 1697), which 
was among the chief circumstances leading to a termination of the war. 
The Venetians, meanwhile, had made many conquests in Dalmatia and 



288 MODERN HISTORY. 

Albania; and the Prince of Orange, now king of England as well as 
stadtholder of Holland, used his influence in favor of peace. Three 
months' negotiations at Carlowitz, near Peterwardein, resulted in a treaty 
between the Sultan on one side, and the emperor, the king of Poland, 

and the Republic of Venice on the other. The Turks ceded 
Jan., 1699. ^ • 

to the House of Austria nearly all their conquests or pos- 
sessions in Hungary, Transylvania, Sclavonia, and part of Croatia ; to Ven- 
ice several Dalmatian fortresses, the isles of St. Maura and ^gina, and the 
entire southern peninsula of Greece ; to Poland the Ukraine, Podolia, and 
Kameniek. The agreement with Russia was delayed more than three years, 
for the Sultan was most unwilling to admit his powerful neighbor to a 
share in Black Sea navigation. In July, 1702, Azov, with eighty miles of 
coast, was at length ceded to Peter the Great, who soon made the fortress 
one of the strongest in Europe. 

59. The capture of Azov had been the first success of the young Czar, 
and it was achieved by foreign aid. But before the signing of the treaty 
he had put in execution his extraordinary design of exiling himself for a 
time, that he might become the civilizer of his people by learning the arts 
and industries of more advanced nations. Traveling in disguise as a sub- 
ordinate in one of his own embassies, he passed through part of Sweden 
and Brandenburg, and fixed his residence at length for several months in 
Holland. Here he labored with his own hands as a ship-carpenter, and 
adopted the raiment, food, and lodgings of his comrades in the shop and 
yard, learning by actual experience all the details of their work. Mean- 
while he was constantly informed of movements in his distant empire, 
and often laid down the hatchet or the plane to sign an order for the 
march of an army or the arrest of a suspected traitor. 

60. By the invitation of William HI., he passed over into England and 
established himself near the royal navy yard at Deptford, where he contin- 
ued his labors in ship-building while receiving instruction in surgery, math- 
ematics, and navigation. After his studies were ended, he paid a visit of 
ceremony to the emperor Leopold at Vienna, and would have continued 
his journey into Italy, but news of a revolt of the Strelitz, the Russian 
militia, recalled him to his own dominion. This formidable and turbu- 
lent soldiery had more than once attempted the life of Peter in obe- 
dience to the orders of his sister Sophia ; and the Czar had begun in his 
boyhood to train a body of infantry after the German tactics to super- 
sede it. The time had now come for its extermination. The ringleaders 
were already in irons ; the barbarous mode of their execution was a 
warning to those who might have followed their example. The Strelitz 
was forever dissolved, and the princess Sophia, whose enthronement had 
been the object, if she herself had not been the mover, of the plot, was 
imprisoned in a convent. 



CI VILIZA TION OF R VSSIA. 289 

61. Having reestablished his power by these prompt and decisive meas- 
ures, Peter began to execute his cherished plans for the civilization of 
his empire. He invited from other nations generals, artists, and literary- 
men whose talents could aid in the formation of his plans, as well as 
skilled artisans, whose industries he patronized and sought to establish in 
his dominion. Arsenals, manufactories, and schools of navigation were 
established by order of the Czar ; maps and charts of various parts of, 
the Empire, and a general survey of mines, were made by competent 
experts and engineers. Greater difficulty was encountered in introdu- 
cing European ideas into the domestic habits of the people. The long 
robes and unkempt beards of the men, the oriental seclusion of the 
women, gradually gave way to western modes of dressing and living ; 
but a brutal grossness of indulgence still prevailed not less at court than 
among the common people, and Peter often remarked that though he 
could civilize his empire he could not reform himself. 

Talents and eccentricities of Christina of Sweden. She abdicates in favor of her cousin, 
Charles X., who aims at supremacy in the north, and even dreams of founding a Gothic 
kingdom in the south, of Europe. Aristocratic but unstable character of the Polish con- 
stitution. John Casimir threatened by Sweden and Russia. The Czar encourages a re- 
volt of the Ukraine Cossacks. Two Swedish and three Russian armies inyade the Polish 
territories. Charles acknowledged by many as king of Poland. Ducal Prussia ceded to 
Brandenburg. Russia, Denmark, and the Empire opposed to Sweden. Protector of Eng- 
land and Prince of Transylvania become her allies. Charles X. overruns Denmark, crosses 
the frozen Belts and captures the islands. Peace of Roskild mediated by France and 
England. Charles violates its terms ; is besieged by Dutch and Danish fleets in harbor 
of Copenhagen, while his lands are invaded by elector of Brandenburg. Upon his death, 
Sweden makes peace with Poland, Denmark, and Russia. Power of the nobles overthrown 
in Denmark, temporarily augmented in Sweden. A new war with Denmark and Bran- 
denburg — disastrous to the Swedes — ended by intervention of Louis XIV. Revolution 
in Sweden depresses the nobles and makes the royal power absolute. 

" War of Candia " ends in subjection of Crete to the Turks. Their conquest in Austrian 
dominions ; defeat at St. Gothard. Truce of Vasvar hastened by disaffection in Hungary. 
Revolt of Count Tekeli ; he seeks alliance of the Turks, who besiege Vienna. It is re- 
lieved by Sobieski, who routs and pursues the besiegers. Gran retaken; other fortresses 
and finally Buda wrested from the Turks. "Holy V\'ar" lasts fifteen years. Hungarian 
crown declared hereditary in the Hapsburg family. Nobles relinquish the right of armed 
insurrection, and the nation receives a guarantee of civil and religious privileges. Ac- 
cession of the Sultan Solyman II. Many fortresses on the Danube taken from the Turks. 
Mustapha Koproli retrieves their losses, but is defeated and slain at Salankemen. Augus- 
tus of Saxony becomes king of Poland — Eugene of Savoy imperial general-in-chief De- 
feat of the Turks at Zeuta. Treaty of Carlowitz restores Southern Greece to Venice, and 
most of its southern provinces to Austria. Azov and access to the Black Sea secured by 
Peter of Russia. Voluntary exile of the Czar for self-education. He introduces science 
and material civilization into his empire ; disbands the Strditz and replaces it with modem 
infantry. 



M. H.— 19. 



290 MODERN HISTORY. 

Reign of Lottis XIV. — Continued. 

62. Returning to the central and more important figures in the great 
European picture, we find Louis XIV. still annexing new territories, in 
spite of the treaty of Nimeguen, or at least by the most artful construc- 
tion of its terms. The free imperial city of Strasbourg was 
secured by bribery and then taken by surprise ; and the skill 

of Vauban soon made it a fortress of the first class. So important was it 
considered as an eastern bulwark of France, that a medal was struck to 
commemorate the completion of the works, bearing the inscription Glausa 
Germanis Gallia. Twenty other towns were wrested from neighboring 
princes; and regular "Courts of Reiinion" were instituted in France, to 
ascertain what dependencies might have belonged at any earlier period to 
these newly annexed dominions. The indignation excited in Germany by 
this rapacity was only increased by the intrigues of Louis to obtain a 
promise of the imperial crown at the next election. 

63. Under the influence of William of Orange, Sweden, Holland, Spain, 
and the Empire entered a joint protest against the siege of Luxembourg 
by the French, and insisted upon a faithful execution of the treaties of 
Miinster and Nimeguen. Warned by this coalition, Louis suspended his 
aggressions, seizing, however, a pretext for his apparent moderation in the 
siege of Vienna by the Turks (see §§ 51, 52). He declared that he could 
not prosecute his personal plans while Christendom itself was threatened 
by the infidel; but he secretly urged the Sultan not to relax his opera- 
tions. In the meantime he sent a fleet to bombard Algiers and liberate 
French and other captives. No sooner had the Turks retreated from 
Vienna, then Louis marched his troops into the Spanish Netherlands 
and captured Courtrai and Dixmude. The next spring and summer 
Oudenarde and Luxembourg were taken, Treves was dismantled, Mons 
and even Brussels were threatened. A truce for twenty years was now 
arranged between France and Holland, and acceded to in a few weeks 
by the emperor and the king of Spain. It was agreed that Louis should 
keep Strasbourg and the province of Luxembourg, with all the towns 
which he had annexed before August, 1681, but should make no farther 
claim on the imperial territories. 

64. In 1683, the queen of France died ; and the next year the king 
privately married Mme. de Maintenon, a woman of remarkable powers 
of mind, whose influence eflTected a great change in the life of Louis. 
Unhappily his reformation of morals was accompanied by an access of 
bigotry, which led to a renewed persecution of his Huguenot subjects. 
The king dreamed of expiating his errors and follies by the merit of 
restoring some thousands of heretics to the communion of the Roman 
Church ; and a succession of edicts soon deprived the protestants of all 



EMIGRATION OF HUGUENOTS. 291 

the civil and domestic privileges secured to them by the wiser policy of 
Henry IV. and Louis XIII. The great and good Colbert, their patron 
and protector, was no more. Louvois, the minister of war, sent troops 
of dragoons to crush resistance in the provinces. This brutal soldiery, 
quartered in the homes of the defenseless people, reduced them to de- 
spair. Many thousands sent in their submission ; and the pride of Louis 
or the flattery of his courtiers declared him as great a conqueror of the 
souls, as of the bodies and possessions of men. 

65. A more decisive and fatal blow was the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes, given by Henry IV., and esteemed by the Huguenots as the 
great charter of their liberties. It was commanded that all protestant 
churches should be demolished, all ministers exiled, and the children of 
protestant parents instructed by the parish priest in the Catholic doc- 
trines. These orders were executed with even greater severity than the 
letter of the Kevocation demanded or permitted. The best of the Hugue- 
nots were imprisoned in damp and noisome dungeons; those who at- 
tempted resistance were shot without mercy. Though the severest pen- 
alties were denounced against those who should leave France, hundreds 
of thousands found means of emigrating; and England, Holland, Ger- 
many, Switzerland, even America, gained what France lost — the most 
valuable source of wealth that any country can possess — an enlightened, 
industrious, and skillful class of citizens. The great elector, Frederic 
"William of Brandenburg, distinguished himself by his liberality to the 
refugees — providing them with land and materials for building, and 
capital for their manufactures. Twenty thousand found refuge in his 
dominions, and their diligence soon transformed the waste sands about 
Berlin into a well cultivated garden. Among the exiles were literary 
men of high reputation ; and Marshal Schomberg, who after a short resi- 
dence in Brandenburg, entered, with a multitude of his compatriots, the 
service of William of Orange. 

66. The greatest opponent of Louis XIV. was not slow to perceive the 
blunder which that sovereign had committed, nor unwilling to take ad- 
vantage of it. Through his exertions the League of Augs- 
burg combined the emperor and the chief German states, 

with the kings of Spain and Sweden as princes of the Empire, in oppo- 
sition to France. The affairs of Cologne and the Palatinate soon afforded 
a pretext for hostilities. French gold secured the election of a partisan 
of Louis to the archbishopric, while the Pope and the League of Augs- 
burg supported the candidature of a Bavarian prince. The Duke of 
Orleans, brother of Louis XIV., had married the sister of the last elector 
palatine of the House of Simmern. The duchess at her marriage re- 
nounced all feudal rights in the Palatinate, but not her hereditary claim 
to the movable property or allodial possessions of her family. Louis 



292 MODERN HISTORY. 

now claimed as "movables" all the cannon of the electoral fortresses; 
and his lawyers so interpreted the allodial tenure as to make it include 
nearly the entire province. The new elector, Philip William of Neu- 
burg, appealed to the emperor ; and the alarm excited by these arrogant 
assumptions, gave new importance to the League of Augsburg. 

67. War began in the autumn of 1688, when French troops in two 
divisions moved from Flanders, and while one under Vauban besieged 
Philipsburg, the other under Bouf&ers occupied the electoral territories 
of Mentz and the Palatinate on the left of the Ehine. The Prince of 
Orange availed himself of the French movement to prosecute his views 
in England. 

To understand the great revolution in that country, we must briefly 
resume its history under Charles II. The dismissal of Clarendon in 
1667 left the government in the hands of a corrupt ministry, which 
interposed no obstacle to the king's subserviency to France. Louis 
XIV. already inscribed in his prospective merit-roll the restoration of 
England as well as the Huguenots to the Catholic Church. But this 
prospect was in the highest degree alarming to a majority of the English 
nation, and the general apprehension secured the passage 
of the Test Act, requiring all persons in either civil or 
military office to conform to the rites of the national church and ac- 
knowledge the supremacy of the king. 

68. The popular excitement was skillfully used by one Titus Gates, who 
invented or greatly exaggerated the evidences of a " Popish Plot " to kill 
the king and raise the Duke of York to the throne. Such credence was 
lent to the wicked fabrications of Gates, that he even dared accuse the 
queen herself as accessary to the plot. Lord Stafford, a Catholic peer, 
was executed on the same charge. A bill to exclude the Duke of York, 
as a papist, from the succession, was passed by the House of Commons, 
but rejected by the Lords. The duke was sent to " try his hand at gov- 
erning" Scotland, where the brutal proceedings of Claverhouse against 
the Covenanters were only exasperating without subduing the resistance 
of the people to the law prohibiting " conventicles." No great ameliora- 
tion was wrought by the new Lord High Commissioner, unless the sub- 
stitution of judicial murder for military execution may be so considered. 

69. The wicked and notorious George Jeffreys, Chief Justice of Eng- 
land, now began to distinguish himself in his circuit through the north- 
ern and western counties. The king had already violated the ancient 
privileges of London by making the election of mayor and sheriffs de- 
pendent only upon his will. Gther towns were forced by Jeffreys to 
surrender their charters. The indignation aroused by these proceedings 
led to another real or supposed conspiracy to destroy both the king and 
the Duke of York. 



BEION OF JAMES II. 293 

This "Eye House Plot" — if, indeed, it liad any real existence — was 
the work of obscure persons ; but the government — now as credulous and 
unjust as the people had been in the opposite case of the Popish Plot — 
accused lords Essex and Russell and Mr. Algernon Sidney of having part 
in the treason. Essex died in prison, whether by his own hand or by 
another, has never been proved. Eussell and Sidney perished on the 
scaffold. Both were illegally convicted, in defiance of the clearest de- 
mands of the law. No overt act of treason was charged upon either. 
Sidney was republican by theory — the last of the " Commonwealth-men " 
who had opposed the protectorate of Cromwell as well as the restoration 
of Charles — but he was not an assassin nor a patron of assassins. Only 
one witness could be produced against him ; the law required two. A 
manuscript found among his papers, justifying conspiracy against Cali- 
gula and Nero was admitted as evidence. It was never fully proved to 
have been wi'itten by him ; but in any case, acts and not opinions are 
the subjects of judicial inquiry. 

70. Charles II. died in February, 1685, and the Duke oi York became 
king without open opposition. James II. was a better man than his 
brother ; but his views both of civil and religious affairs were even more 
firmly opposed to those of the most enlightened of his subjects. The 
principle that governments exist for the good of the people, not the 
people for the government — self-evident as it now appears — was only 
approaching its triumph in the English Revolution, It was affirmed by 
the Whig party, then just rising into importance; while the Tories 
upheld the sacred right of kings, whatever their personal character, 
to the unalterable allegiance of their people. 

71. James began his reign by ordering the release of all persons who 
had been imprisoned for refusing the oath of supremacy, and commanded 
his judges to discourage further prosecutions in matters of religion. This 
act, though apparently just and liberal, was regarded with distrust by 
the mass of the nation, who saw in it a first step toward the introduc- 
tion of popery. The general discontent favored a concerted invasion of 
England' and Scotland in the interest of a rival claimant to the crown. 
The banished Earl of Argyle landed in the western Highlands ; and the 
Duke of Monmouth, a son of Charles II., invading England, was pro- 
claimed king at Taunton. Both movements failed. Argyle, deserted by 
his followers, was captured and put to death at Edinburgh ; Monmouth, 
though joined by several thousands of Whigs, was defeated in battle at 
Sedgemoor, and beheaded at London. The revenge of the court was grati- 
fied by a series of brutal massacres perpetrated by Colonel Kirke in the 
western counties; and by the not less barbarous proceedings of Jeffreys 
under forms of law. The chief justice boasted that he had hanged more 
persons for high treason than all English judges since the Norman Conquest. 



294 MODERN HISTORY. 

72. Presuming upon his success, the king increased his standing army, 
nullified the Test Act by his own authority, and received a nuncio from 
the Pope with ceremonious homage. The primate, Dr. Sancroft, and six 
other bishops venturing to remonstrate, were imprisoned in the Tower. 
The people, though alarmed, waited in patience ; for the king was grow- 
ing old, and his eldest daughter, the heiress-apparent, was the wife of 
the Prince of Orange, the great opponent of absolutism in civil and re- 
ligious affairs. Many years before his accession, James had contracted a 
second marriage with an Italian princess, Mary of Modena. In June, 
1688, his first son was born. This event hastened the revolution. De- 
spairing of a return of just government by constitutional means, many 
men of rank and influence sent an invitation to the Prince of Orange to 
lead an army into England. 

73. It was accepted, and "William landed in Torbay. The common 

people flocked about him from the first ; and soon officers 
of the army and the government, with their dependents, 
began to arrive in his camp. The king, whose late repentance had failed 
to retrieve his errors, sent his wife and son to France, and then himself 
fled from the capital, throwing the Great Seal into the Thames, and 
leaving England without a govjernment. The Prince of Orange summoned 
a convention of the Estates of the realm according to the usual parlia- 
mentary forms. This body having recognized the flight of James II. as 
an abdication, proceeded to "secure the religion, laws, and liberties" of 
England by a Declaration of Eights, and then offered the crown to Wil- 
liam and Mary in joint sovereignty. Their reign began Feb. 13, 1689, 
the two preceding months being called an Interregnum. 

74. Scotland followed the example of England, though several clans of 
Highlanders made armed resistance. They defeated General Mackay in 
the pass of Killiecrankie ; but their leader, Graham of Claverhouse, now 
better known as Viscount Dundee, was slain, and the victory was without 
effect. In Ireland the contest was conducted by James II. in person, 
with forces furnished by his cousin, the king of France. But the heroic 

defense of Londonderry, his defeat at Newton Butler, and 
the still more decisive battle of the Boyne gained by Wil- 
liam III., wrecked the hopes of the Stuarts. James, once more a fugitive, 
became a pensioner for the rest of his days, on the generosity of Louis 
XIV. So altered were the relations of European powers, that the king 
of Spain, the emperor, and even the Pope, joined in congratulating Wil- 
liam on his accession to the throne ; for this event, by turning the last 
remaining ally of Louis into an enemy, imposed a check upon that ex- 
travagant ambition which was dreaded by all Europe alike. 

75. Unable to defend his conquests beyond the Rhine, the French king 
had commanded his generals to burn all the towns and villages which 



GRAND ALLIANCE AGAINST LOUIS XIV. 295 

they could not garrison. By this brutal order 100,000 human beings 
were made homeless, and rich and thriving cities, not less than farms, 
orchards, and vineyards, were changed into a blackened and desolate 
wilderness. The emperor Leopold, in declaring war against Louis, de- 
nounced him as the enemy of Christendom. England, 

AD 1690 

Holland, Spain, and Savoy now joined in the Grand 
Alliance with the emperor and the German states. The war which 
followed can not be related in detail. The greatest generals on the side 
of France under the king himself, were the Duke of Luxembourg, a 
pupil of Conde, Catinat, who rather resembled Turenne in the caution 
and scientific complexity of his movements, and Vauban who still occu- 
pies a first rank among military engineers. On the other side were the 
consummate tactics of William of Orange, Eugene of Savoy, the Earl of 
Marlborough, and the Dutch engineer, Cohorn. The Duke of Lorraine, 
the emperor's best general, died in 1690, and was succeeded in the chief 
command by the Bavarian elector, Maximilian Emanuel. 

76. In June, 1690, Luxembourg gained a great and decisive victory at 
Fleurus, over the Prince of Waldeck. The next year was marked by 
the death of the French war-minister, Louvois. Though his insolence 
had been almost as intolerable to his master as his inhuman atrocities 
to the conquered peoples, the loss of his great abilities was severely felt. 
In 1692, by extraordinary efforts, Louis XIV. had under his control the 
largest military and naval forces that France had ever raised. His first 
object was the restoration of James II. to the throne of England; and 
30,000 British exiles were assembled at Havre, La Hogue, and Cherbourg 
in readiness to embark for their native land. A great victory gained by 
Admiral Eussell over the French fleet annihilated their hopes. As James 
II. watched the combat from the heights near La Hogue, his pride as an 
English admiral is said to have surmounted his disappointment as a 
banished king, and he expressed his delight in the skill and bravery of 
the forces of William. 

77. The king of France was more fortunate on land. Namur was 
taken after ten days' siege, though king William was approaching with 
a large army to its relief. In the battle of Steinkirk, which soon fol- 
lowed, both sides suffered enormous losses, but the chief advantage re- 
mained with the French. The next year, the two kings were at the 
head of their respective armies near Louvain. Louis had more than 
double the numbers of his opponent, and the whole Spanish Netherlands 
seemed within his grasp. But fearful of risking his reputation, he with- 
drew and disbanded part of his forces, thus exposing himself to the 
derision not only of the enemy but of his own ofiicers ; which the glory- 
loving king felt so keenly that he never more appeared in the field. 
In Piedmont, however, Marshal Catinat gained the great battle of Mar- 



296 ■ MODERN HISTORY. 

saglia, and in Catalonia the Duke of Noailles captured Eosas ; while 
Admiral Tourville in the Bay of Lagos defeated the English squadron 
of Eooke, who was convoying an English and Dutch merchant fleet 
toward Smyrna. 

78. In spite of these successes, the king of France was desirous of 
peace. "The people were perishing to the sound of Te Deums." The 
peasantry had been largely drafted into the armies, and the lands lay 
uncultivated. Taxes upon industry dried up the very sources of revenue, 
while the kingdom was burdened with an enormous debt. A still stronger 
motive for peace was found in Louis' views concerning Spain, whose child- 
less king, Charles II., was evidently near his death. An understanding 
had 'long before existed between Louis and the emperor Leopold — who, 
by a singular coincidence,* sustained precisely the same relation to the 
Spanish royal family — respecting a partition of King Charles' dominions 
in the event of his death. But Louis could not hope for a realization 
of this scheme, if the fatal moment should arrive while all Europe was 
combined in arms against him. He therefore sought the mediation of 
the Pope — now Innocent XII. — and of the kings of Sweden and Den- 
mark ; and offered ample concessions as the price of peace. The emperor 
and the king of England, well aware of his exhaustion, opposed and neu- 
tralized all his efforts, and the war went on four years longer. 

79. Few of its events deserve to be recorded. French privateers preyed 
upon Dutch and English commerce ; and the French armies renewed their 

devastations in the valley of the Rhine. Namur was retaken 
by King William ; and, as it was the first of Louis' conquests 
that had been wrested from him by force, great encouragement was felt 
by the allies. The Duke of Savoy was the first to desert the Grand Al- 
liance, and reunite himself with France. The emperor was most averse 
to peace; but on the intimation that England and Holland would make 
a separate treaty with Louis, he consented at last to negotiate. The 
ministers of all the powers of Europe met in May, 1697, at Eyswick, a 
little village near the Hague; and in the following September, the 
French embassadors concluded three distinct treaties with England, 



* For a table of this family connection, see Appendix. Each monarch was a grandson, 
by his mother's side, of Philip III. of Spain ; each had married a daughter of Philip IV. 
and was therefore a brother-in-law of Charles II. The mother and the wife of Louis XIV. 
were the eldest of their respective families ; but each, on the other hand, had solemnly 
renounced her claim to the Spanish dominion. Louis insisted that the Low Countries 
belonged of right to the eldest child, whether son or daughter ; and this theory had led 
to the War of Devolution described in ?§ 28, 30. 

The electoral prince of Bavaria, a grandson of Leopold and his Spanish wife, was held 
by many to have the best right to the Spanish crown on strictly hereditary principles,, 
the renunciation by the two Infantas being considered binding. But, having been born 
in 1693, the Bavarian prince was too young to have a personal share in the dispute. 



LAST OF THE SPANISH HAPSBUBGS. 297 

Holland, and Spain. By the first, Louis bound himself to acknowledge 
William III. as rightful king of England, and to render no further aid 
to James Stuart or his family. Thus forever withdrawn from French 
influence, England became in the European system the chief counterpoise 
to France. Spain received back all the towns taken by the French in 
Catalonia, and most of those in the Netherlands of which Louis had ob- 
tained possession in various ways since the treaty of Nimeguen. The 
following month a treaty was also concluded with the emperor on the 
basis of those of Nimeguen and Westphalia. The Duke of Lorraine — 
Leopold, son of Charles V. (see §§ 24, 38, 75) — was restored to his pa- 
ternal dominions, but Alsace remained to France. Joseph Clement of 
Bavaria was confirmed in the electorate of Cologne ; and the Duchess of 
Orleans resigned all her claims in the Palatinate upon receiving a sum 
of money from the new elector. 

80. All Europe, during the next three years, watched the declining 
health of the king of Spain. That kingdom seemed in fact almost as 
near its dissolution as the, king; for earthquakes, hurricanes, inundations, 
and famine were added to the more avoidable sources of misery in a 
bankrupt treasury and the general neglect of public discipline. To dis- 
arm the opposition of all Europe to the combination of two such domin- 
ions as those of Spain and the Empire in one person, Leopold assigned 
his Spanish claims to his second son, the archduke Charles, while Louis 
for a similar reason proposed as his candidate his grandson, Philip of 
Anjou, second son of the Dauphin. 

81. Since the emperor, disregarding his former compact, assumed to 
dispose of the whole dominion of Spain at home and abroad — not less 
as the head of the House of Austria, than as the grandson of a Spanish 
king — Louis sought an ally in his late most bitter enemy, the king of 
England. To prevent the absorption by Louis of the entire patrimony 
of Charles H., and the consequent enormous increase of French power, 
William III. entered into a secret treaty of partition, con- 
cluded at the Hague between England, Holland, and 

France, by which the Bavarian prince was to receive the kingdom of 
Spain, with its possessions in the Low Countries and in America; only 
its Italian dependencies being divided between the Dauphin and the 
archduke Charles. No territorial advantage was sought by either Eng- 
land or Holland, their action being purely defensive. This treaty com- 
ing to the knowledge of Charles II., he was naturally incensed, and re- 
taliated by a will in which he made the Prince of Bavaria his sole heir. 
The little prince died suddenly, however, in 1699 ; and both the will and 
the treaty were rendered void. 

82. A new partition was arranged in 1700 by William and Louis, as- 
signing to the Dauphin Lorraine and all the Spanish possessions in Italy, 



298 MODERN HISTORY. 

except Milan ; while Spain itself was allotted to the archduke Charles on 
condition of its being forever kept separate from the Empire. The Duke 
of Lorraine was to have Milan in exchange for his hereditary duchy. 
If the emperor rejected this arrangement, Spain was destined for a third 
party, supposed to be the Duke of Savoy. The unseemly dispute was 
carried on in the very court of Madrid, where the envoys of the several 
conflicting powers obtained ascendency by turns over the feeble and 
vacillating mind of Charles II. The French interest prevailed at length, 
and the king made a new will, bequeathing his undivided dominions to 
the Duke of Anjou. A month later he died, in the 39th year of his 
age and the 37th of his reign. 

I2,EC.A.I=ITTJXj.A.TI03sr. 

Strasbourg and many other towns annexed by Louis XIV. after the peace of Nimeguen. 
A fresh coalition of the Treaty Powers compels a truce. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes ; 
dragonnades ; emigration of nearly half a million Huguenots to protestant countries. 
League of Augsburg unites the German states against Louis. 

Discontent in England with the French policy of Charles II. Popish and Rye House 
Plots lead to the execution of Stafford, Russell, and Sidney. Accession of James II. Rise 
of the "Whigs" and "Tories." Failure of Monmouth's rebellion. Birth of a Prince of 
Wales disappoints the WTiigs, who invite the Prince of Orange into England. James de- 
serts his capital ; William and Mary are proclaimed, upon their acceptance of the Declara- 
tion of Rights. James is defeated in Ireland — most signally in the battle of the Boyne. 
Grand Alliance of aU Europe against Louis XIV. The allies are defeated at Fleurus; 
victorious in a naval battle off La Hogue ; defeated at Steinkirk. Namur taken by Louis 
XIV. ; recaptured after three years by William III. Louis seeks peace in order to secure 
the inheritance of Spain. Treaty of Ryswick, A. D. 1697. Treaty for partition of the 
Spanish possessions signed by the kings of France and England. Death of the Prince of 
Bavaria occasions a new Partition Treaty. The king of Spain bequeaths his dominions 
to a grandson of Louis XIV. 



War of the Spanish Succession. 

83. Less than three months from the death of Charles II., Philip V. 
was welcomed with acclamations to his capital of Madrid ; and most of 
the European powers hastened to acknowledge him. The emperor's in- 
terference was delayed by symptoms of a Hungarian insurrection, and 
by disturbances in northern Germany occasioned by the creation of a 
ninth electorate — that of Hanover. All seemed to favor the interests 
of Louis XIV., and by a conciliatory policy he might perhaps have se- 
cured the advantages which he had gained. But he gave needless offense 
to England and the Spanish nation, and alarmed the Dutch by expelling 
their garrisons from several towns in the Netherlands which had been 
guaranteed to them as a frontier on the side of France. Thus several 
nations were ready to combine against him when the favorable moment 
should arrive. The emperor listened to the urgent advice of Eugene of 



KINGDOM OF PR USSIA. 299 

Savoy, who represented that the Enapire could never be safe while the 
French held entrances to it through northern Italy and Belgium. 

84. By the Treaty of the Crown, executed at Vienna, Leopold gained 
a powerful ally without cost. Frederic III., elector of ^^ ,^„„ 

r •> ' Nov., 1700. 

Brandenburg, coveted the title of king. The emperor en- 
gaged to recognize his royal dignity, in consideration of certain aids to 
be rendered in the field, the Diet, and the electoral Council ; and the 
elector, hastening to Konigsberg, assumed with great ceremony the crown 
and title of " King of Prussia." The new kingdom, from the necessity 
of its position, assumed from the first that military character which it 
still retains. Owing its rise to the energetic war-policy of the Great 
Elector — father of the first king — it was raised by a progressive mili- 
tary organization during the next two reigns to a rank among the 
" Great Powers " of Europe. Prince Eugene, having massed his forces 
near Trent, descended in May, 1701, upon the plain of Lombardy. Catinat 
was defeated, and the imperialists occupied the whole country between 
the Adige and the Adda, Villeroy, succeeding to the command of the 
French forces, was still more signally worsted at Chiari and Cremona. 

85. A second Grand Alliance of the emperor with the kings of Eng- 
land and Prussia, the States-General, and the elector palatine, avowed 
its determination to secure the reasonable claims of the House of Austria, 
as well as the colonies and commerce of Holland and England, against 
French aggression. As before, William of Orange was the soul of the 
movement. To his rupture of the Partition Treaty, Louis XIV. now 
added a more flagrant insult to that prince, by recognizing James Stuart, 
upon the death of his father, the late king James II., as king of England, 
Scotland, and Ireland. This act aroused the slumbering loyalty of the 
English Parliament, which immediately voted liberal supplies for the war, 
with the petition that " no peace shall be made with France, until his 
Majesty and the nation have made reparation for the great indignity offered 
by the French king." An "Act for adjuring the pretended Prince of 
Wales" passed a few months later. 

86. The death of William in March for a moment disconcerted the 
allies. His sister-in-law and successor, Queen Anne, how- ^ ^^^^ 
ever, declared her intention to pursue the same policy 

which he had begun ; and the Earl of Marlborough proceeded with an 
army to Holland. By a peaceful revolution, the United Provinces — or 
rather the five, exclusive of Friesland and Groningen — abolished the 
office of Stadtholder, which had been borne by William until his death, 
and resumed the more purely republican government, supported by the 
De Witts. Heinsius, Grand Pensionary of Holland — a firm adherent to 
the policy of the Prince of Orange — had the chief voice in the affairs 
of the United Netherlands, and with Marlborough and Prince Eugene 



300 MODERN HISTORY. 

constituted what was called the Triumvirate of the Second Grand Al- 
liance. 

87. England, Holland, and the Empire declared war against France 
and Spain in May, 1702. The elector of Bavaria and his brother, the 
archbishop of Cologne, whose investiture had been so strenuously opposed 
by Louis XIV. in 1688, were nevertheless allies of France ; and the terri- 
tory of Cologne was the first object of attack by the English and Dutch. 
Kaiserswerth, Venloo, Stephanswerth, Ruremond, and finally Liege, were 
successively captured during the campaign of 1702. The king of the Ro- 
mans meanwhile commanded on the Upper Rhine, where Prince Louis 
of Baden, his associate in command, took Landau in September. Prince 
Eugene, as before, conducted the campaign in Piedmont, where Philip V. 
appeared for a few months at the head of the French and Spanish forces. 
On the sea, the allied fleet succeeded in sinking or capturing the entire 
Spanish West India squadron, laden with gold and silver. 

88. The next year, Marlborough, now duke, completed the conquest of 
the electorate of Cologne, while the allies captured Limburg, and Guel- 
ders. The French party was more successful in Germany, where the 
elector of Bavaria not only repulsed a two-fold invasion of his dominions, 
but seized Ratisbon and with Marshal Villars defeated the imperialists at 
Hochstadt. An insurrection in Hungary under Prince Ragotzki diverted 
the Austrian forces, and Vienna might have fallen into the hands of the 
elector, had he not delayed his attack until the season was too far ad- 
vanced. The French on the Rhine had meanwhile taken Breisach, de- 
feated the emperor's army at Spirebach and recaptured Landau. The 
Duke of Savoy, offended by not receiving the cor][imand of the French 
and Spanish forces, now deserted the cause of his son-in-law, the king 
of Spain, and joined the Grand Alliance, thus cutting off the communi- 
cation between France and Italy. Pedro II. of Portugal, also — led by 
the admiral of Castile, who found himself slighted by Philip V. — entered 
into a perpetual alliance with England and the United Netherlands. 
These accessions emboldened the allies to extend their plans, and not 
only push the Austrian claims in Italy and the Netherlands, but substi- 
tute the archduke Charles for Philip of Bourbon upon the throne of 
Spain. 

89. In 1704, Marlborough was in Germany. His army having joined 
that of Louis of Baden near Ulm, he took the heights of Schellenberg 
by storm, and thus gained an important control of the Danube. A junc- 
tion was now effected with Prince Eugene, and in the great battle of 
Blenheim near Hochstadt, the allies gained a decisive victory over the 
French and Bavarians. A great mass of infantry who had taken no part 
in the action, surrendered themselves prisoners, and the French were 
compelled to evacuate Germany. They were pursued across the Rhine; 



WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 301 

aud Marlborough, after taking Treves and several other towns, fixed his 
advanced posts upon the Sarre. All the Bavarian fortresses were sur- 
rendered to the emperor, except Munich, which was dismantled, but con- 
tinued to be the residence of the electress ; while the elector retained only 
his appointment as governor-general of the Spanish Netherlands. 

90. In Italy, fortune favored the French, who regained their communi- 
cation with the Milanese by reconquering the northern part of Piedmont. 
Meanwhile, Charles III., the Austrian candidate for the Spanish crown, 
landed in Portugal with a Dutch and English army ; but his progress was 
checked by the Duke of Berwick, a son of James II., who was in the 
French service. The English fleet of Admiral Eooke gained possession, 
almost by accident, of the fortress of Gibraltar. It had been but slightly 
garrisoned by the Spaniards, who presumed upon its enormous natural 
strength. A party of English sailors, availing themselves of a holiday, 
when the eastern side had been left unguarded, scaled that precipitous 
height, while another party stormed the South Mole; and Eooke occu- 
pied the fortress in the name of the queen of England. The campaign 
closed favorably to the allies. Louis XIV., expelled from Germany, had 
lost the alliance of Bavaria; the key to the Mediterranean was in the 
hands of the English ; and France herself was threatened with invasion 
by the allied army on the Moselle. 

91. The next year was marked by the death of the emperor Leopold 
and the accession of his son, Joseph I., a prince of more 

energetic and decisive character. The Hungarians under • ■ i . 

Eagotzki were still in revolt; and in spite of all Joseph's concessions, 
demanded a return to their former elective constitutions. A rebellion 
in Bavaria. was suppressed by force, and the emperor resolved to blot out 
that electorate from the map of Germany. Its territories were divided 
among several princes, the Upper Palatinate being restored to the elector- 
palatine, from whose dominions it had been separated since the Thirty 
Years' "War. The main actions of 1705 were in Italy and Spain. Prince 
Eugene was defeated at Cassano by the Duke of Vendome; but on the 
other hand, the French were compelled to raise the siege of Gibraltar, 
and the Earl of Peterboro', having captured Barcelona, secured the alle- 
giance of Catalonia and a great part of Valencia for Charles III. The 
archduke was present at the surrender, and was hailed with acclamations 
as king of Spain. 

92. The next year Aragon also proclaimed him ; and from the western 
border, the allies marched upon Madrid, which, deserted by Philip and 
his court, fell easily into their hands. The people, however, preferring 
the French to the Austrian succession, rose against their invaders, ex- 
pelled the garrisons, and forced the two allied armies, now united, to retire 
into Valencia. Alicant and Cartagena were taken by the English, but 



302 MODERN HISTORY. 

the latter was recaptured by the Duke of Berwick. The same year, 
Pi'ince Eugene, having joined his cousin, the Duke of 
Savoy, gained a brilliant victory over the French before 
Turin. Charles III. was proclaimed in Milan, and all Lombardy sub- 
mitted to the imperialists. Marlborough in the Netherlands had gained 
in May the no less brilliant and decisive victory of Eamillies, by which 
Brabant and the greater part of Flanders were conquered for the allies; 
and had taken Menin, Dendermonde, and Ath. 

93. Humiliated by these reverses, Louis XIV. offered to abandon Spain 
and the Indies to Charles III. and the Spanish Netherlands to Holland, 
on condition of the Italian possessions being secured to Philip of Anjou. 
The allies refusing to accept less than the whole Spanish inheritance, the 
war went on, and in the spring of 1707, fortune began to favor the 
French. In the fatal battle of Almanza, the allies lost all their infantry, 
with their standards, baggage, and artillery. Valencia and Aragon sub- 
mitted to Philip V. ; Lerida and Ciudad Eodrigo, on the frontiers of 
Catalonia and Portugal, respectively, were recaptured. The allies were 
scarcely more successful in northern Italy or in their invasion of France. 
Toulon was blockaded by the united forces of Prince Eugene and the 
Duke of Savoy, on the land, and by the fleet of Sir Cloudesley Shovel 
on the sea, but the approach of a French army compelled the raising of 
the siege. In southern Italy, however, the whole kingdom of Naples 
was gained for Charles III. by a small imperial army under Marshal 
Daun. 

94. The union of England and Scotland this year excited some dis- 
content in the latter kingdom, of which Louis XIV. attempted to avail 
himself by sending a fleet and 5,000 men to escort the Pretender, James 
III., to the Firth of Forth. His design was frustrated by Admiral Byng ; 
and it is only worthy of mention as the first of a series of similar 
attempts, some of which were more formidable, but all equally in vain. 
Loyalty to the Stuarts naturally lingered longer in Scotland, their ancient 
home, than in England, their recently acquired dominion. 

In the Netherlands, this year, the French gained possession of Ghent 
and Bruges; but the armies of Marlborough and Prince 
Eugene won a brilliant victory at Oudenarde over the 
dukes of Burgundy and Vendome, captured Lille by a long and difficult 
siege, rescued Brussels from the elector of Bavaria, and reconquered the 
two revolted cities, thus regaining all Spanish Flanders, and occupying 
part of that which had belonged to France. In the Mediterranean, Ad- 
miral Leake received the submission to Charles III. of the island of 
Sardinia, and established a British garrison at Port Mahon. Majorca and 
Ivi§a had already declared for the archduke. 

95. The exhaustion and ruin of France at the end of 1708, were ag- 



TREATY OF UTRECHT. 303 

gravated by a winter of extraordinary severity, whicli destroyed vine- 
yards, orchards, and the grain already sown, and produced for the ensu- 
ing season a terrible famine. Whole families of the poor were found 
frozen to death in their wretched hovels; the rapid current of the Rhone 
was arrested, and the Mediterranean seemed almost transformed into a 
polar sea. The misery of the people produced a universal outcry against 
the war, and Louis was compelled to offer still more humiliating terms 
than before, as the price of peace. But his sincerity was doubted, and 
the allies demanded that he should himself aid in expelling the Duke 
of Anjou from Spain. The pride of the French, even in the depth of 
their distress, revolted at this indignity, and they resolved to continue 
the war. 

96. In the next campaign, Marlborough and Eugene captured Tournay, 
and by a dearly-bought victory at Malplaquet obtained the surrender of 
Mons. The Pope recognized Charles III. as king of Spain. In 1710 Louis 
renewed his former proposals of peace, and even offered a million livres a 
month to aid the allies in expelling Philip from the peninsula. Their 
haughty rejoinder required him to use his own armies for that purpose. 
The old king exclaimed, "If I must needs fight, I will war against my 
enemies, not my children ! " His determination was justified by two 
brilliant victories, gained by his armies at Brihuega and Villa Viciosa, 
which confirmed the power of Philip V. in Spain. 

97. England by this time was weary of a war in which she bore the 
chief burdens and reaped few advantages. A Tory ministry succeeded 
the party of which Marlborough was a leading member; and in 1711 the 
early and unexpected death of the emperor Joseph changed the whole 
interest of Europe in the War of the Spanish Succession. The archduke 
Charles was the foremost candidate for the imperial crown, and if he 
should also obtain that of Spain and the Indies, Europe would again be 
threatened with a universal monarchy, the dread of which had armed all 
the nations against Louis XIV. Preliminary articles between England 
and France were signed at London in October, 1711. In December, the 
archduke was crowned at Frankfort as the Emperor Charles VI. Not- 
withstanding the discontent of the allies at the desertion of their cause 
by England, the new ministry succeeded in obtaining the dismissal of 
Marlborough from all his appointments, and the chief supporter of the 
war-policy thus lost his influence in public affairs. 

98. A congress for the conclusion of peace was opened at Utrecht in 
January, 1712. Eighty ministers on the part of the allies conferred with 
three representatives of the French king. During the progress of nego- 
tiations, a series of domestic calamities befell Louis XIV., which compli- 
cated the tasks of the diplomatists. By the death of his eldest son in 
1711, the title of Dauphin and successor to the throne had descended to 



304 MODERN HISTORY. 

the Duke of Burgundy, a prince of the greatest promise, whose talents 
and virtues had been strengthened and improved by the wise instructions 
of Fenelon. In February, 1712, the young Dauphin suddenly died of 
a fever which had robbed him, a few days before, of his wife, and which 
now attacked their two little children. The elder of these, the Duke of 
Bretagne, died; but the younger, only two years of age, his infant con- 
stitution weakened by the disease, survived ; and his feeble life was the 
only barrier — except, indeed, an oath of renunciation, which experience 
showed could be too easily disregarded — between Philip V. of Spain and 
the throne of France. Upon the demand of England, the Spanish king 
ceded his French claims to his younger brother, the Duke of Berri. 

99. The emperor refused to join in the conference at Utrecht, and con- 
tinued the war, though it brought him only disaster. At length he con- 
sented to a separate treaty with France ; and Prince Eugene met Marshal 

Villars, his former opponent in arms, for a conference at 
Rastadt, in which military directness took the place of the 
slow and ceremonious action of the diplomatists. The Peace of Eastadt 
restored the entire right bank of the Rhine to the Empire. All the 
Spanish possessions in Italy — the kingdom of Naples, Sardinia, Milan, 
and the fortresses on the Tuscan coast — with all the Spanish Nether- 
lands, except certain frontier towns which were secured to the Dutch, 
';yere ceded to Charles VI.. In a subsequeat Barrier Treaty between the 
emperor and the States, it was agreed that a standing army should be 
maintained in the "Austrian Netherlands," as they are now to be called; 
three-fifths of the men being in the imperial, and two-fifths in the Dutch 
service. The electors of Cologne and Bavaria were restored to their 
estates, on consenting to acknowledge the new electorate of Hanover. 

100. The terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, which regulated almost all the 
boundary lines in Europe, can only be generally indicated. The succes- 
sion of the elector of Hanover* to the English crown after the death 
of Queen Anne, was acknowledged by the king of France, who engaged 
also to dismantle Dunkirk, and to cede to England the whole tract in 
North America including Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay. 
Louis recognized the royal title of the king of Prussia, and ceded to him, 
as representative of the House of Orange, the principality of Neuchatel 
in Switzerland, while Frederic I. relinquished his claims to the principal- 
ity of Orange. The Duke of Savoy received back his territories, which 
were divided from those of France by the water-shed of the Alps. He 
was invested by Spain with the island-kingdom of Sicily, and the ultimate 
succession to the Spanish crown in case of the failure of the line of 
Philip V. The duke was crowned at Palermo, November, 1713. Philip 



*See Appendix — for the derivation of the Hanoverian from the Stuart dynasty. 



DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. 305 

V. was formally recognized by the other powers, as king of Spain. He 
ceded Gibraltar and Minorca to England on the condition that neither 
Moors nor Jews should be tolerated in either ; recognized the Hanoverian 
succession, and assigned to England a monopoly of the slave-trade with 
the Spanish colonies for thirty years. Spain and Portugal resumed their 
former boundaries. The remaining articles of the treaty related chiefly 
to commercial and colonial matters, and though important to the nations 
concerned, were too minute to be detailed here. 

101. Two of the high contracting parties to the Peace of Utrecht died 
soon after its completion. Anne was succeeded upon the English throne, 
in 1714, by George Lewis, elector of Hanover, a prince whose ruling 
motive was hatred of France, and who immediately recalled the Whig 
ministry and reinstated Marlborough as captain-general of the armies. 
Louis XIV. died, Sept. 1, 1715, after a reign of 72 years, which had 
formed a most memorable era in European history. His great talents 
and his rich inheritance would have given him, in any case, a leading 
power among the nations; but his immoderate desire of conquest made 
him the scourge rather than the benefactor of Europe. His treasury — 
which in the earlier years of his active reign had been always well filled 
by his own thrift and the able management of his ministers — was long 
ago drained by ruinous wars, and he resorted to the most oppressive 
measures to wring further supplies from a starving and exhausted people. 
Conscious of his failures, and of the worthlessness of that "glory" which 
had been the idol of his youth, the king sought refuge in an abject 
superstition which inflicted a last injury upon his realm. He committed 
the keeping of his conscience to the Jesuit Le Tellier, who engaged him 
in a bitter persecution of the Jansenists — the steadfast opponents of the 
moral and political, no less than the doctrinal system of the Jesuits. 

102. If Louis' life had been prolonged, his evasion of several articles 
of the Treaty of Utrecht — especially the aid which he rendered to James 
Stuart in his invasion of Scotland in 1715 — would probably have again 
broken the peace of Europe. But a fever ended his days, and the ad- 
monition which he addressed to his great-grandson from his death-bed, 
contained a condemnation of his life-long policy: "Live at peace with 
your neighbors; do not imitate me in my fondness for war, nor in my 
exorbitant expenditure. . . Endeavor to relieve the people at the earliest 
possible moment, and thus accomplish what, unfortunately, I myself am 
unable to do." It would be unjust, however, to omit the more favorable 
view of the reign of Louis XIV. He encouraged and rewarded the in- 
dustries of his people. The wise economy of Colbert fostered the colonial 
system, and while stimulating agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, 
did not neglect the moral and intellectual interests of the nation. The 
French Academy, founded by Eichelieu. became a great institution of 

M. H.— 20. 



306 MODERN HISTORY. 

the state. Four other academies, established during this reign — those 
of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, of Sciences, of Architecture, and of 
Painting and Sculpture — have been distinguished ever since by the zeal, 
industry, and learning of their members. 

103. Colbert first connected the Mediterranean with the Atlantic by 
the Canal of Languedoc, enlarged and improved several harbors, formed 
great marine arsenals at Toulon, Brest, Havre, and Dunkirk, and aug- 
mented the naval power of France by his unremitting attention to the 
fleet. According to the notions of the time, he thought to promote com- 
merce by the formation of great monopolies, such as the trading com- 
panies of the East and West Indies, the North and the Levant. 

The " Age of Louis XIV." is remarkable as a great literary era. The 
dramas of Corneille, Eacine, and Moliere, the letters and "Thoughts" of 
Pascal, the sermons of Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Fenelon, and Massillon, are 
masterpieces in their several departments of literature. The court of 
Louis was the model to all Europe of elegance and refinement ; and 
though deficient in the substantial virtues — more especially during the 
first half of his reign — it has never been surpassed in the charms of 
graceful conversation, or of that delicate and chivalrous courtesy of which 
the king himself was the most illustrious example. It was at this period 
that French taste, manners, and modes of living and thinking gained 
their ascendency in Europe. 

u,Ea-A.:piTTJXj-A.Tioisr. 
Philip of Bourbon receives the Spanish crown by the will of the late king and with 
the consent of the people. War of the Spanish Succession begun by victories of Prince 
Eugene over the French in Lombardy. Second Grand Alliance organized by AVilliam III. 
of England. James Stuart acknowledged as king by France, but abjured by England. 
Queen Anne continues the war-policy of WiUiam III. Marlborough, Heinsius, and Eu- 
gene of Savoy are the Triumvirate of the Grand Alliance. Victories of Marlborough on 
the lower Rhine. Rebellion of Ragotzki in Hungary. Savoy and Portugal join the Grand 
Alliance, which now aims to wrest Spain itself, as well as its foreign dependencies, from 
the French. Victories of the allies at Schellenberg and Blenheim. Elector of Bavaria 
loses all his fortresses and most of his territories. Gibraltar taken by the English. Em- 
peror Joseph I. succeeds Leopold. Charles III. proclaimed King in Catalonia, Valencia, 
Aragon, and Lombardy ; the next two years in Naples and Sardinia. Victories of Marl- 
borough at RamilUes and of Eugene at Turin. Victory of the French at Almanza, and 
reconquest of Valencia and Aragon. Act of Union between England and Scotland ; in- 
effectual invasion by James III. Victory of the allies at Gudenarde and capture of Lille, 
Ghent, and Bruges. Misery of the French people ; unavailing concessions of Louis for the 
sake of peace. The allies, victorious at Malplaquet, capture Tournay and Mons. Fall of 
Marlborough's party detaches England from the alliance. Death of the emperor Joseph 
and of the son and grandson of Louis XIV. alters the conditions of the Spanish succession. 
Treaties of peace, negotiated at Utrecht and Rastadt, convert the Spanish into the Austrian 
Netherlands ; recognize the Hanoverian succession in England and that of the Bourbons 
in Spain ; acknowledge the elector of Brandenburg as King of Prussia and Prince of Neu- 
chatel ; confirm England in the possession of Gibraltar and Minorca, and a vast region 
of North America ; secure Sicily (afterward exchanged for Sardinia) to the Duke of Savoy 



WABS OF THE NORTHERN NATIONS. 307 

Death of Anne of England and of Louis of France. Bigotry of Louis XIV. in his later years ; 
ascendency of French taste in Europe, owing to the material and intellectual activity of 
his reign. 

Charles XII. and Peter the Great. 

104. The first twenty-one years of the eighteenth century were occu- 
pied by the great Northern War, in which the two chief actors were 
Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter I. of Eussia. The accession of Charles 
in 1697, when only fifteen years of age, inspired his neighbors with the 
hope of wresting from Sweden her possessions east and south of the 
Baltic* The mover of the conspiracy was Augustus II. of Poland and 
I. of Saxony ; but hostilities were actually begun by his ally, Frederic 
IV. of Denmark, who, in March, 1700, invaded the territories of the 
Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, a brother-in-law and intimate friend of Charles. 
The young king of Sweden displayed at this crisis a firmness and energy 
which surprised both his enemies and his counselors. He reassured his 
senate by the spirited declaration : " I have resolved never to wage an 
unjust war, nor ever to close a just one except by the destruction of my 
enemies." The sentiment was doubtless sincere, but it was doubly con- 
tradicted by events. He allied himself with Holland and England — 
now known by preeminence as the Maritime Powers — and their fleet 
combined with his own covered his descent upon Denmark. Frederic 
IV. was compelled to treat for the preservation of his capital. By the 
Peace of Travendal, he renewed his ancient treaties with the Duke of 
Holstein, and engaged to pay a large indemnity for the losses he had 
inflicted. 

105. His first war being thus ended without a blow, Charles was at 
liberty to meet the Czar, who, with 80,000 men drawn from his provinces 
in Asia and Europe, had commenced the siege of Narva. The Swedish 
army of scarcely one-tenth the number of the Russians, forced a defile 
hitherto deemed impregnable, and inflicted a severe and 

total defeat upon the besieging host. Peter had fled before 
the battle, but he learned from it a useful lesson ; and strove with untiring 
energy to bring his vast, undisciplined masses of troops into a condition 
to meet the more civilized armies of Europe. To this end he sent nearly 
20,000 men to serve under the king of Poland, who had to sustain the 
next attack. In 1701, Charles defeated the Saxon troops near Riga and 
occupied all Courland. The Maritime Powers, now on the eve of the 
War of the Spanish Succession, and desiring peace in northern Europe, 
attempted to mediate; but Charles refused to treat until he had more 
signally avenged the perfidy of Augustus. He marched in May, 1702, 



* These were Finland, Carelia, Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia; most of Pomerania; the 
fortresses of Stettin, "Wismar, and Stralsund ; the duchies of Bremen and Verden. 



308 MODERN HISTORY. 

upon Warsaw and entered it without opposition, while the king fled to 
Cracow; and in July the combined army of Poles and Saxons suffered a 
decisive defeat at Clissow between the two capitals. The next year 
Charles again defeated the Saxons at Pultusk, and captured Thorn, whose 
fortifications he demolished. 

106. As usual, a strong party of the Polish nobility was opposed to 
the king ; and with it, though indecisively, acted the Primate Eadzie- 
jowski. In a diet called by this prelate at Warsaw, Augustus was de- 
clared to have forfeited his crown by attempting to purchase peace with 
the cession of some Polish provinces to Sweden. The desire of this party 
was to raise James Sobieski to the throne, but Augustus had anticipated 
their movement by imprisoning that prince with his younger brother. 
The Swedish influence was exerted in favor of Count Stanislaus Leczin- 
ska, who in July, 1704, was proclaimed King of Poland. He was crowned, 
under a guard of Swedish soldiers, the following October, and soon signed 
a treaty of peace and alliance with Charles XII. Augustus retired to 
Dresden, his ancient Saxon capital, whither he was followed in 1706, by 
the king of Sweden and 20,000 men. Unable to resist, he signed the 
treaty of Altranstadt, by which he renounced the crown of Poland for 
himself and his descendants, abandoned his alliance with Russia, and re- 
leased the princes Sobieski from their captivity. 

107. During the interval since his defeat at Narva, the Czar had been 
busily improving his army and navy, and had taken possession of the 
provinces of Ingria and Carelia, which had been lost to his empire in 

1617. The foundations of his new capital, St. Petersburg, 

May, 1703. f ' 

were laid upon an island in the Neva which, by treaties 
still in force, belonged to Sweden ; but the Czar's confidence in himself 
and presentiment of his adversary's failure, were justified by the results. 
For the protection of the new city, the fortress of Cronstadt was founded 
near the head of the Gulf of Eiga. During 1704, Dorpat and Narva 
were captured, Lithuania and Courland occupied ; though in the latter 
province the Russian general was defeated by the Swedes at Gemauers. 
Learning at Narva of the Peace of Altranstadt, Peter hastened into 
Poland, hoping to retain the alliance of the nobles, without whose knowl- 
edge or consent that treaty had been concluded. A diet at Lublin, July, 
1707, declared the throne vacant since the abdication of Augustus, and 
summoned the electors to the choice of a king. Charles marched from 
Saxony to defeat this movement; but the Czar, now too wise to meet 
him in regular battle, harassed and fatigued him by long and fruitless 
marches, and effectually disconcerted his plans. 

108. In 1708, the Swedish king invaded Russia, probably intending to 
march upon Moscow. But he found the country destitute of forage for 
man or beast, the roads well guarded, and the enemy's cavalry constantly 



BATTLE OF PULTAWA. 309 

ready to harass his columns, though they could never be brought to a 
general engagement. Without waiting for his reinforcements which were 
on the way, Charles suddenly marched toward the Ukraine, where Ma- 
zeppa, the aged Hetman of the Cossacks, was plotting with his aid to 
become independent of the Czar. Peter, marching to meet the Swedish 
reinforcements, defeated General Loweuhaupt at Liesna, destroyed half 
his men and captured his entire convoy ; while Charles, to his disap- 
pointment, found Mazeppa, not at the head of the army of 30,000 which 
he had promised, but a suppliant fugitive, with only a few personal at- 
tendants. 

109. The Swedes, worn out by their march through forests and marshes, 
were ragged and many of them shoeless, but their king, disdaining retreat 
by a shorter route into Poland, insisted on laying siege to Pultawa. Here 
he was overtaken by 60,000 Russians under their best generals, the Czar 
himself serving, according to his custom, in a subordinate rank. With 
only one-third the number, Charles resolved to give battle, though a 
wound in his foot compelled him to devolve the chief command upon 
his general Rhenskicild. He was present in a litter, but the movements 
of his men lacked the precision which he was accustomed to give them. 
They fought with great valor, but were overpowered by superior num- 
bers, and nearly half were left dead upon the field. The king escaped 
with difficulty. Rhenskiold with the most distinguished officers were 
prisoners. 

110. The battle of Pultawa ended the Swedish superiority in northern 
Europe, while it marked the rise of Russia as a great European power. 
Leaving Lowenhaupt in command of the shattered remnant of his forces, 
the king crossed the Dnieper and sought refuge with the Turkish com- 
mandant of Bender. Lowenhaupt capitulated, and Sweden was left with- 
out king or army, at the mercy of her foes. The treaties of Travendal 
and Altranstadt were speedily broken. Augustus H. resumed the crown 
of Poland, which was abandoned by Stanislaus, and renewed his con- 
nections with Russia and Denmark. Frederic IV. invaded Sweden and 
captured Helsingborg, but was thwarted in his further designs by the 
good conduct of General Stenbock. At the same time the Swedish-Ger- 
man provinces were attacked by a combined force of Saxons, Poles, and 
Russians. The emperor and the Maritime Powers then interfered, and 
by the Treaty of the Hague secured at least a brief neutrality to those 
provinces, as well as to Schleswig and Jutland. 

111. Through the instigation of Charles XH,, the Sultan Achmet had 
meantime been moved to declare war against the Czar. Encouraged by 
the flattering promises of the Hospodar of Moldavia, Peter invaded that 
province in the spring of 1711. But the promises were unfulfilled, and 
the Czar found himself surrounded by a Turkish army more numerous 



310 MODERN HISTORY. 

than his own, cut off from supplies, and unable either to advance or re- 
treat. In this desperate case, relief was only obtained through the tact 
and resolution of the Czarina Catherine * Sending all her jewels as a 
present to the Grand Vizier who was in command of the Turks, she in- 
duced him to listen to terms of peace. Peter surrendered Azov, and 
engaged to withdraw his army from Poland, whereupon he was permitted 
to recross the Pruth without molestation. 

112. Charles XII. was no longer a welcome guest in the Turkish do- 
minions; while the progress of the Czar in Finland and the Baltic prov- 
inces urgently demanded his presence. He waited, however, to be forci- 
bly dislodged by the Janizaries from his camp at Varnitz, and conveyed 
as a prisoner to Adrianople, before he accepted the Turkish escort to the 
frontier and the emperor's safe-conduct for his passage through Germany. 
His face being once turned homeward, his characteristic impatience led 

him to make the journey of 1,100 miles on horseback in 
°^'' ■ less than seventeen days. Arriving at Stralsund, he imme- 

diately renewed hostilities with Frederic William I. of Prussia for the 
possession of Pomerania. But the alliance against him now included Eus- 
sia, Poland, Denmark, and England ; Wismar and Stralsund, besieged by 
their united forces, surrendered ; and Sweden was thus driven from her 
last remaining possession south of the Baltic. Having humbled their 
common enemy, the allies began to distrust each other, and preliminaries 
of peace between Sweden and Russia were already signed, when in De- 
cember, 1718, Charles met his death in the siege of Fredericshall in 
Norway. 

113. His nephew, the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp, was the rightful 
heir, but a revolution made the Swedish crown elective, and elevated 
Ulrica Eleanora, the second sister of Charles, to the throne. Her hus- 
band, Frederic of Hesse Cassel, was already in command of the army and 
became really the head of the state. The peace with Eussia was broken 
pff, but treaties were made successively with England, Poland, Prussia, 
and Denmark. The latter kingdom was confirmed in the possession of 
Schleswig. Prussia received Stettin and the district between the Oder 
and Peene, with the islands of Usedom and WoUin ; Hanover retained 
the duchies of Bremen and Verden. The war with Eussia continued 
three years longer by sea and land ; but at length, through the mediation 
of France, the Peace of Nystadt was concluded in September, 1721. Eus- 
sia restored Finland but retained the other provinces east of the Baltic. 
The Czar wrote to his embassador in Paris: "Apprenticeships usually end 



*This extraordinary woman had been an Esthonian peasant. Taken prisoner by the 
Russians in the siege of Marienburg, she had won the admiration of the Czar by her native 
talents, and had recently been raised to the throne. 



EUROPEAN COLONIES. 311 

in seven years; ours has lasted thrice as long; but, thank God, it is at 
length brought to the desired termination." In the twenty-one years 
which he had spent in learning — chiefly from his adversaries — the arts 
of conquering and governing, Peter had reorganized an army and created 
a navy, had built a city of palaces among the marshes of the Neva, and 
had raised himself by his personal energy and industry to be one of the 
greatest monarchs in Europe. The Senate and Synod conferred upon him 
the title of "Emperor of all the Russias;" and the nobles and people of 
the capital hailed him as the Father of his country, Peter the Great. 

Accession of Charles XII. of Sweden. His dominions attacked or menaced by Denmark, 
Poland, and Russia. The first is humbled by the Peace of Travendal ; the Czar with vastly 
superior numbers is defeated at Narva; the king of Poland at Riga, Clissow, and Pultusk. 
By Treaty of Altranstadt, Augustus resigns the Polish crown, which the Swedes bestow 
upon Stanislaus Leczinski. Peter of Russia seizes the Baltic provinces, and lays the foun- 
dation of St. Petersburg ; protects Moscow by devastating the country ; defeats the Swedes 
at Liesna and Pultawa. t!harles takes refuge with the Turks; the remnant of his army 
is surrendered. Sweden is attacked by Danes, Saxons, Poles, and Russians. The Sultan 
declares war upon the Czar, who obtains peace by the surrender of Azov. Charles, re- 
turning to his kingdom, is killed before Fredericshall ; is succeeded by his sister, who 
resigns public aifairs to her husband, Frederic of Hesse Cassel. Cessation of the Northern 
War completed by the Treaty of Nystadt, which recognizes the rank of Russia among the 
Great Powers of Europe. 

European Colonties. 

114. It is time for a view of those foreign settlements which had ex- 
tended the fame and power of several European nations to the remotest 
regions of the globe. Their purposes were four : mining, agriculture, 
commerce, and increase of dominion ; and though these may have been 
to a certain degree combined, yet in general it may be said, that, while 
America became the seat of extensive mining and agricultural colonies, 
western Africa and the East Indies — owing to the noxious climate of all, 
and the dense population and powerful Mogul government of Hindustan 
— admitted little more than the forts and factories of European traders. 
The colonial system of all the European states was narrowly restrictive. 
The colonies existed for the advantage of the parent state, never for their 
own. But this policy was carried to its extreme by Spain. 

115. Three Spanish viceroys governed her possessions in the New 
World. The Eoyal Court of the Indies appointed all officers, civil, mil- 
itary, or ecclesiastical, almost uniformly from natives of the mother 
country. These must prove their descent from "old Christians," i. e., 
from families untainted with Jewish or Mohammedan blood, and never 
censured by the Inquisition. Long residence in America, being supposed 
to weaken their aflfection for Spain, was held as sufficient reason for dis- 



312 MODERN HISTORY. 

trust and exclusion from office. Hence tlie officers of government, having 
no community of interest with the colonists, were in haste to make their 
own fortunes, often by means of extortion and oppression. 

116. To prevent any sort of independence, those branches of agricul- 
ture and manufactures which supply the common wants of life, were 
expressly forbidden to the colonists. Their clothes, furniture, tools, even 
a considerable part of their food, were brought from Spain, and only by 
Spanish ships, for the colonists were not permitted vessels of their own. 
Intercolonial trade was either forbidden or so jealously restricted that its 
motives were destroyed. The only exception was the commerce with the 

Philippine Islands, the sole Spanish possession in Asia, which 

A D 1564 

had been settled by a colony from Mexico. By their 
active trade with the Chinese, the Philippines were supplied with Asiatic 
fabrics, and these were permitted to be carried, though only by one or 
two ships yearly, to the port of Acapulco. 

117. Beside the precious metals, of which an annual average value of 
$20,000,000 was for three hundred years regularly entered at the Spanish 
ports, the most important products of the colonies were the cochineal of 
Central America, the indigo of Guatemala, the chocolate of that province 
and Caraccas, the sugar of Hayti, the tobacco of Cuba, the quinine 
of Peru, and hides from the herds of cattle roaming on the vast plains 
south of the La Plata. Commerce with the three American viceroyalties 
was carried on by a fleet sent once in each year to the ports of Carta- 
gena, Porto Bello and Vera Cruz. The annual fair of forty days at Porto 
Bello witnessed the most lucrative trade in the world. At the season 
when the galleons were expected, this squalid negro village — whose 
atmosphere was almost fatal to Europeans, from its excess of heat, moist- 
ture, and vegetable decay — was suddenly transformed into a busy mer- 
cantile exchange, crowded with merchants and wares from the whole 
vpestern portion of South America. A few commercial houses in Seville 
had not only control but entire possession of the American market ; the 
colonists, deprived of all share in the enterprise, were compelled to buy 
at the most enormous prices, or forego the opportunity to dispose of their 
products. 

118. When the colonies were founded, Spain was able to supply their 
wants from her own manufactures, and thus greatly increase her wealth. 
This state of things altered when Philip III. expelled nearly a million 
of his most industrious subjects from the kingdom (see Book III., § 292) ; 
the Spanish merchants, unable longer to keep up the exchange with the 
colonists, eluded the law by sending foreign goods under their own names, 
and the treasures received in return went to reward and improve the skill 
of English, French, and Dutch artisans. Spain, possessing lands greater 
than all Europe and unsurpassed by any in the world in the value of 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE COLONIES. 313 

their products, became destitute of either money or industry. Upon the 
extinction of the Austrian line in Charles II., the attempts of foreign 
nations to control the succession to the throne brought back a portion 
of the gold and silver which had been diverted into other lands, and 
occasioned some revival of prosperity. Philip V. opened the American 
trade to France, and, under stringent limitations, to England. The lim- 
itations were evaded, and the superior enterprise of the English merchants 
gave, them almost the control of the South American markets. 

119. Nearly a hundred years before, the jealous attempts of the Span- 
iards to prevent the approach of foreigners to their colonies had caused 
the West Indian seas to swarm with buccaneers. A pirate-state was 
formed on Tortuga; and similar settlements on the western portion of 
Hayti or St. Domingo were recognized as French possessions in 1664. 
Ten or a dozen of the smaller islands were purchased by Colbert, and 
systematic efforts were made to encourage the culture of sugar, cotton, 
and coffee. The slave .trade with the African coast found its most profit- 
able markets in the mining and agricultural colonies of the New World. 
Begun, by the Portuguese as early as 1440, it had been introduced into 
tiie West Indies by the good Las Casas, in pity for the feeble and over- 
worked Indians. 

The frightful inhumanity of the trafiic was not yet apparent to Chris- 
tian nations; and England, Holland, and France competed with Portugal 
for a share in its profits. Queen Anne, after the Treaty of Utrecht, re- 
tained one-fourth of the monopoly for her own private account, and thus 
became the greatest slave-merchant in the world. Spain, for some reason, 
never engaged directly in this trade; but contracted with foreigners for 
the requisite supply. The system of npartimientos (see Book III., § 12) 
was greatly mitigated by ordinances of Charles V., who raised the natives 
of his Spanish possessions from the rank of slaves to that of subjects. 
They were governed in their own villages by caziques or chiefs, descended, 
in many instances, from their former monarchs; and though certain 
labors were exacted from them, they were rewarded and made as little 
oppressive as possible. One inferior r^ce was relieved at the expense of 
another. 

120. The annexation of Portugal to Spain made her colonial possessions 
the prey of English and Dutch attacks, and led to the 

downfall of the Portuguese empire in Asia. The Dutch 
were ultimately driven from Brazil; but in India only Goa and Diu 
remained to Portugal, while Ormuz was reconquered by the Persians. 
Jesuit missionaries opened the way to Portuguese commerce with China 
and Japan. St. Francis Xavier, one of Loyola's first converts — canon- 
ized after his death as patron and protector of the East Indies — was 
among the pioneers. Macao, in China, was presented to the Portuguese 



314 MODERN HISTORY. 

as a trading station and continued in their possession until it was opened 
to all nations ; but their residence in Japan was ended, in 
.' ' ' less than a hundred years from its beginning, by a massacre 

of Christians and expulsion of all foreigners. Fortunately for Brazil, her 
great gold mines were not discovered until 1696, when the rich agricul- 
tural resources of the country had been in some slight degree developed. 
The lands along the coast were granted in fief to great families, forming 
distinct captaincies subject only to the crown. 

121. In North America, the rival pretensions of France, England, and 
Spain, had given way to an actual division, by which France claimed the 
entire basins of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi in right of exploration; 
England occupied a strip of Atlantic coast scarcely a hundred miles in 
width, extending from the Penobscot to the limits of Florida ; and Spain, 
in spite of the exclusive grant of Pope Alexander VI., was forced to 
content herself with what remained. At the opening of the eighteenth 
century, the English dominions were more populous and flourishing, 
though far less extensive, than those of the French. Eelying less upon 
the patronage of the great than upon their own resolute industry; freely 
choosing the toils and perils of the wilderness in exchange for the re- 
strictions — in many cases, the persecutions — which they had suffered in 
Europe, the English colonists in less than a hundred years had established 
twelve states whose permanence was no longer doubtful. 

122. The origin of these colonies is too familiar to need detailed nar- 
ration. Under the London Company, chartered by James I., in 1606, 
for "planting and ruling" part of his American dominions, the first per- 
manent English settlement was made at Jamestown in Vir- 
ginia. The hero of the enterprise was Captain John Smith, 

whose native genius had been developed by a series of remarkable ad- 
ventures against the Spaniards in Holland and the Turks in Hungary 
and Africa; and whose resolution alone saved the colony from destruc- 
tion by the faults and follies of the first settlers. A settlement of differ- 
ent character was planted by a hundred English Puritans on the rock- 
bound coast of Cape Cod Bay. Founded in fidelity to religious prin- 
ciple, and maintained by untiring industry and unflinching courage, the 
new state had a firm foundation in the virtue and intelligence of its 
citizens. 

By fresh immigrations, English colonies spread northward along the 
coast, where are now the busy manufacturing towns of Massachusetts and 
New Hampshire. Settlements were made in Connecticut by detachments 
from Massachusetts Bay. It is perhaps no just cause for wonder that the 
fathers of New England had not learned universal tolerance in the school 
of persecution. The Providence Plantation, germ of the state of Rhode 
Island, owed its existence to the expulsion of Eoger Williams, minister 



ENGLISH COLONIES IN AMERICA. 315 

of the church, at Salem, from the Massachusetts Bay Colony, for the ut- 
terance of more liberal sentiments than were then prevalent. The 
charter obtained by Williams in 1644 provided that no person should be 
in any way "molested, punished, disquieted, or called in question, for 
any difference of opinion in matters of religion ; " the first example in 
Europe or America of a civil government formally and legally abdica- 
ting its claim to control the spiritual affairs of men. 

123. Nearly equal freedom was enjoyed under the charter of Mary- 
land, obtained by Lord Baltimore in 1632, which protected all forms of 
Christianity within the limits of that colony. The two Carolinas were 
peopled under a patent granted by Charles II., soon after his restoration, 
to the Earl of Clarendon and seven other lords and baronets, in recogni- 
tion of their loyal and faithful service. Desirous of concentrating the 
wisdom of all ages into the management of the infant state, Lord Shaftes- 
bury, one of the proprietors, with the aid of John Locke, the philosopher, 
drew up a "Grand Model" of government, by which he proposed to 
transplant the cumbrous ceremonials of the old world into the woods 
and wildernesses of the new. But while waiting for the " Model," the 
farmers and artisans of Albemarle had improvised a form of government 
suited to their immediate necessities, and which continued in force long 
after the elegant and elaborate code had been abandoned. 

124. Early in the seventeenth century the Dutch claimed the lands 
between Chesapeake Bay and Connecticut River, in right of the explora- 
tions of Henry Hudson, then in their service, during his search for a 
north-west passage to India. The Dutch West India Company undertook 
the colonization of New Netherlands ; a lucrative fur-trade with the In- 
dians drew many adventurers, and the trading post on the island of 
Manhattan grew into a thriving town, where now stands the greatest 
city of the western world. A settlement of Swedes on the lower Dela- 
ware was conquered and absorbed into New Netherlands. But in 1664, 
Charles 11. of England, always willing to make war upon Holland at the 
bidding of France, granted all the lands of the Dutch colony to his 
brother, the Duke of York. The government of the West India Com- 
pany had become obnoxious to many of the colonists, especially to the 
English, who were numerous, and when the English squadron appeared 
in the harbor a majority of the people clamored for surrender. 

Stuyvesant, the governor, was forced to yield. " New Amsterdam " and 
the colony in general, became New York, and Fort Orange on the Hud- 
son was named Fort Albany from the duke's Scottish title. The lands 
between the Hudson and the Delaware were conferred upon Berkeley 
and Carteret, two of the proprietors of Carolina, and re- 
ceived the name New Jersey. Seventeen years later a large 
tract west of the Delaware was bestowed by King Charles II. upon Wil- 



316 MODERN HISTORY. 

liam Penn, a celebrated Englisli Quaker, who desired to found an asylum 
of perfect civil and religious freedom. His justice and- benevolence to- 
ward the Indians preserved his colony from the perils which beset the 
others, and his new city of Philadelphia enjoyed unbroken peace and 
prosperity. 

125. The English colonies had their share in every war of the mother 
country with France; and this was aggravated by the neighborhood of 
the native tribes, ever ready to be stirred by French emissaries to acts 
of savage atrocity. Two great Indian families — the Huron-Iroquois and 
the Algonquin — occupied the region north of the Carolinas and east of 
the Mississippi. Of these the Iroquois proper, or Five Nations of central 
New York, were superior to all others in intelligence and political organ- 
ization. Perfectly understanding the advantages of their position at the 
entrance to the great lakes and at the head of streams flowing to the 
Atlantic and the Mississippi, they made themselves feared by every tribe 
in their vast hunting grounds. " Patient and politic as they were fero- 
cious, they were not only conquerors of their own race, but the powerful 
allies and the dreaded foes of the French and English colonies, flattered 
and caressed by both, yet too sagacious to give themselves without re- 
serve to either." 

126. The Algonquins were most numerous in New England, where they 
displayed all the worst traits of savage character in their fierce and treach- 
erous assaults upon the feeble colonies. It is to be observed, however, that 
two radically diflerent lines of policy toward the Indians were pursued 
by the English and French. To the latter, their savage allies bore an 
essential part in the scheme of colonization. To the former — especially 
the earliest settlers of New England — the dark, revengeful faces that 
appeared in the gloom of the forests, were those of demons rather than 
of men ; and though they might sometimes be conciliated from fear, 
they were seldom admitted, as by the French, to the rank of allies and 
companions. 

127. The first colony within the present limits of the United States 
was planted, as we have seen, by the far-seeing policy of Coligny, who 
availed himself of a lull in the storm of persecution to obtain royal 
orders for a settlement of Huguenots in a region which they named 
Carolina. Though this generous design failed, its memory survived, and 
the revival of persecution under Louis XIV., though a calamity to 
France, conferred an inestimable boon upon America. The Revocation 
of the Edict of Nantes drove to the new world thousands of refugees, 
who brought to their homes in the wilderness all that was best in the 
refined French society of that Augustan age. Their perfect and genial 
courtesy — not less than their financial thrift and enterprise — and 
that moral elevation which had been proved by the renunciation of 



THE FBENGH IN NORTH AMERICA. 317 

all worldly advantages for conscience' sake, added precious elements to 
colonial life. 

New Eochelle in New York perpetuated the name of the Huguenot 
capital in France ; Massachusetts, Maryland, and Virginia, offered a cor- 
dial welcome with lands and citizenship ; but it was in the Carolinas, 
whose climate resembled that of their native Languedoc, that the greatest 
number of the exiles found a congenial home. Here they introduced the 
vine, olive, and mulberry, and the manufacture of silk. No citizens had 
a more important influence in shaping the character of the future Re- 
public; none were more steadfast in their devotion to rightful liberty. 
Laurens, Marion, Jay, and Faneuil are but few of many Huguenot names 
celebrated in our Eevolutionary annals. 

128. The long and romantic tale of French exploration in America 
can only be sketched in faintest outlines. A leading policy with the 
French was to make themselves necessary to the Indians in three dis- 
tinct characters as soldiers, traders, and priests. Fighting their battles 
with the novel and terrible fire-arms, and thus giving them at least a 
temporary superiority over their most dreaded foes ; supplying their 
wants from European factories, and gaining their confidence by the self- 
denying and devoted lives of missionaries who taught them a holier faith 
— the handful of Frenchmen were reinforced for exploration and conquest 
by thousands of savage allies, whose brutal manners they endured and 
whose nauseous fare they partook with brotherly good nature. Jesuits 
were among the foremost " Pioneers of France in the New World." The 
" mission " was the outpost of French civilization ; the cross and the 
lilies of the Bourbons were planted together in the depths of primeval 
forests, on the banks of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In this 
way the rocky coast of Maine, the lakes of Central New York, the straits 
and northernmost peninsula of Michigan, the prairies of Illinois, Indiana, 
and Texas, the frozen solitudes near Hudson's Bay, were all claimed for 
France. 

129. Among the first and greatest heroes of exploration was Samuel 
de Champlain, the founder of Quebec. Joining a war-party of Algon- 
quins at Montreal, he traversed the beautiful lake which , t^ ,^n„ 

^ • ' A. D. lbU9. 

still bears his name, and in a battle on its shore gave to the 
astonished Iroquois their first experience of white men and gunpowder. 
On another occasion he ascended the Ottawa, and crossed from its upper 
waters to Lake Huron, gaining every-where accessions of Indian allies. 
Again, crossing Lake Ontario, he led an attack upon a fortified village 
of the Iroquois. Twenty-seven years of unwearied toil and hardship were 
devoted to the Canadian colony, and Champlain is truly entitled the 
Father of New France. 

130. Still more remarkable were the adventures of Robert de la Salle, 



318 MODERN HISTORY. 

discoverer of the Mississippi. While the Jesuits desired to establish a 
new Paraguay among the North American savages, La Salle aspired to 
a great feudal sovereignty over the tribes of the interior, to be enriched 
by the fur-trade of the North-west, while it maintained the ascendency 
of the French crown from the Great Lakes to the Mexican Gulf Having 
planted several forts and trading factories on the lakes and the upper 
branches of the great river, he explored the latter to its mouth, and 
where it enters the Gulf, solemnly proclaimed the "most high, mighty, 
invincible, and victorious prince, Louis the Great, King of France and 
Navarre" to be sovereign of all the countries from which that vast 
volume of waters is derived. Pleased with this accession of dominion, 
the Grand Monarch fitted out a colony for "Louisiana" under the direc- 
tion of La Salle. But the enterprise was one series of disasters. Passing 
by mistake the mouth of the Mississippi, the emigrants were landed on 
the coast of Texas, and the naval commander, always hostile if not 
treacherous, sailed for France. Unable to remove his colony. La Salle 
set out for Canada to obtain supplies. He was murdered on the way, 
and the settlement became a prey to the Spaniards. The colonization 
of Louisiana was reserved until another reign. 

131. During " King William's War," the French and English colonies 

preyed upon each other with a ferocity hardly surpassed by 
A. D. 1689-1697. f, . „. i, , ,, • i • i,+ ^ 

their savage allies ; but the midnight massacres oi women 

and children need not be related. The French project for the capture 
of New York failed, equally with a combined expedition of the English 
colonists against Quebec and Montreal. The English conquered Acadia, 
now Nova Scotia, but the shores of Hudson's Bay were preserved to the 
French by the bravery of two brothers — Sainte Helene and D'Iberville. 
The Peace of Ryswick restored to France the whole north-eastern coast of 
America from Maine to Hudson Straits, with the exception of the east- 
ern half of Newfoundland. 

132. The establishment of the British Empire in India belongs to the 
eighteenth century, though the three presidencies of Bombay, Madras, 
and Calcutta were organized before 1700. The Dutch had exclusive pos- 
session of the Spice Islands, beside Java, Celebes, Sumatra, Malacca, a 
great part of Ceylon, and two posts on the mainland of Hindustan. Their 
agricultural colony at the Cape of Good Hope was of great importance 
to the preservation of their Indian possessions. One of their most flour- 
ishing colonies was that of Surinam or Dutch Guiana, and several rocky 
islets of the West Indies, which had been neglected as worthless by the 
Spaniards, became valuable trading posts to the Hollanders. Though the 
Dutch had been first by sword and pen to assert the freedom of the seas, 
their colonies were governed by a system of commercial monopolies al- 
most as narrow and exclusive as that of Spain. Two great trading com- 



PHILIP OF ORLEANS, REGENT OF FRANCE. 319 

panics for the Eastr and West Indies were intrusted with the civil, 
military, and ecclesiastical management of all their settlements, and this 
mode of government was sometimes, as in the New Netherlands (§ 124), 
galling to the independent spirit of the people. 

HE C-A.:PITTTIi-A.TI01T. 

Restrictive policy of European nations toward their colonies. Spanish viceroyalties in 
America trade exclusively with the Philippines and with Spain. Annual fairs at Carta- 
gena, Porto Bello, and Vera Cruz. Decay of Spanish industry. Slight relaxation of co- 
lonial monopoly under the Bourbons. French corsairs gain part of St. Domingo. Negroes 
imported to relieve the West Indians. Portugal, being annexed to Spain, loses nearly all 
her foreign possessions except Brazil. Her Jesuit missions overthrown in Japan. Cap- 
taincies in Brazil. 

North America divided among France, England, and Spain. Virginia colonized by the 
London, New England by the Plymouth Company. Religious liberty established in Rhode 
Island, INIaryland, and Pennsylvania. Model constitution of the Carolinas. Dutch settle- 
ments on the Hudson River grow into the province of New Netherlands. Conquered by the 
English, it becomes New York. Danger to the colonies from the native savages, of whom 
the Iroquois were most highly organized — the Algonquins most treacherous. Early failure 
of Huguenot settlements in Carolina ; benefit to English colonies from immigration con- 
sequent on the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Friendly alliance between French and 
Indians. Self-sacrifice of the Jesuits. Explorations of Champlain and La SaUe. Suffer- 
ings of the colonies in King William's War. Beginning of English dominion in India. 
Island possessions of the Dutch ; their colonies in Africa and South America ; oppressive 
policy of the East and West India Companies. 

Eeign of Louis XV. 

133. Louis XV., like his predecessor, came to the French throne 
at the age of five years. The regency was seized by the 

AD 1715 

Duke of Orleans, nephew of Louis XIV. — a bad man, who 
had even been accused of accomplishing the deaths of the father, mother, 
and brother of the king. (See § 98.) It is probable, however, that the 
improvement of his own chance of the succession through these events 
was the only ground for the suspicion. His rivalry with the king of Spain 
for the French crown, in the not improbable event of the death of Louis 
XV., led him to cultivate the friendship of England, whose sovereign had 
a similar interest in upholding the faith of treaties against absolute hered- 
itary principles. Strict legitimists, on the other hand, asserted that no 
act of Parliament could justly exclude James Stuart from the English 
throne; and that neither oath nor treaty could abrogate the "divine 
right" of Philip V. to that of France. A Triple Alliance 

Tstn 1717 

of England, Holland, and France, renewed the provisions 
of the Treaty of Utrecht, and confirmed the Duke of Orleans in the re- 
gency in opposition to the pretensions of the king of Spain. It became the 
Quadruple Alliance by the accession of the emperor the following year. 

134. By the Peace of Passarowitz, Charles VI. had just concluded a 
war with the Turks, in which Eugene of Savoy had gained some of the 



320 MODERN HISTORY. 

last and greatest of his victories in the field. The fortresses of Belgrade 
and Temesvar were secured to Austria, but the Turks retained all south- 
ern Greece, which they had previously conquered from the Venetians. 
The war between the two ancient rivals, Philip V. and the emperor, re- 
sulted in the conquest of Sardinia by the Spaniards and of Sicily by the 
imperialists. The Duke of Savoy resigned the latter island for the title 
of King of Sardinia, which was borne by his house until 1861, when it 
was merged in the greater sovereignty of Italy. 

135. The queen of Spain, Elizabeth of Parma, was conciliated by the 
betrothal of her daughter, then but three years of age, to the king of 
France. Being the second wife of Philip V., the ruling motive of this 
able and ambitious woman was a desire to make some royal provision 
for her own sons. She was descended from the nearly extinct family of 
the Medici ; and the imperial fiefs of Tuscany, Parma, and Piacenza were 
promised to her son Don Carlos. This young prince married one daughter 
of the regent Orleans, while his half-brother, the heir to the Spanish 
crown, espoused the other. The short-lived cordiality between France 
and Spain greatly increased the influence of the Jesuits in the former 
kingdom. Philip V. was not less bigoted than his predecessors of the 
same name though of a diiFerent family, and during his reign 2,346 per- 
sons were burned at the stake for their religious opinions. 

136. One fatal legacy of Louis XIV. to France was a debt of $400,- 
000,000, the yearly interest upon which amounted to nearly nine times 
the surplus revenues of the state. The regent, who, in spite of his profli- 
gacy, was a man of brilliant talents, attempted to grasp the yet un- 
realized wealth of the American dominion as a relief from present 
embarrassments. With his favor, John Law, a Scottish banker, proposed 
the famous Mississippi Scheme. The public credit was to be retrieved 
by an enormous issue of paper money secured by shares in the Missis- 
sippi Company, and based upon a monopoly of trade with Louisiana and 
Canada. For a year speculation raged high in France. The very vastness 
of the enterprise and the unknown extent of its basis appealed to the 
popular imagination. The datys were not long enough to satisfy the eager 
throng of purchasers of the company's stock ; princes, bishops, scholars, 
and ladies of noble rank embarked their fortunes. Paper money of large 
denominations was preferred to gold, if only for the speed with which it 
could be counted. The public debt disappeared, its bonds having been 
exchanged by their holders for the shares of the company. 

137. The transient excitement gave a great impulse to colonization ; 
and eight hundred emigrants planted the title of the regent in the city 

of New Orleans on the banks of the Mississippi. Law him- 
self received vast territories in Arkansas, and lavished im- 
mense wealth in transporting thither French and German settlers and 



THE PRAGMATIC SANCTION. 321 

negro slaves. But the bubble burst. In May, 1720, the notes of Law's 
bank were found to be irredeemable in specie. The stock of the Missis- 
sippi Company had a thousand-fold outrun the available value of its 
possessions, and men who had dreamed themselves rich awoke to poverty. 
It is possible that ignorance of the true nature of money bore a larger 
part than deliberate fraud in this remarkable scheme; but the ill-judged 
attempt to restore the public credit was almost as disastrovis to the nation 
as the wars which had indirectly occasioned it. During the same year, 
1720, a similar delusion, known as the " South Sea Bubble," prevailed in 
England, with nearly the same results. 

138. In February, 1723, Louis XV. was declared of age, and Orleans 
resigned the regency. As president of the Council of State he might 
have continued to control France, but near the end of the same year he 
died and was succeeded by the Duke of Bourbon. In renewed anticipa- 
tion of the death of Louis XV., the king of Spain surprised all Europe 
by abdicating his crown in favor of his eldest son, Don Louis. His design 
was, of course, to clear his way to the throne of France ; but when, con- 
trary to all expectation, the French king recovered and the younger 
Louis suddenly died, Philip V. resumed the Spanish crown. His daugh- 
ter was, a few months later, sent back from Paris to Madrid, and Louis 
XV. married Maria Leczinska, daughter of the exiled king, Stanislaus 
of Poland. 

139. The tangled web of European diplomacy at this period is hardly 
worth the trouble of unraveling. Many an intricate plot came to no re- 
sult, being thwarted by some other scheme still more cunningly contrived ; 
and the multitudes of conflicting interests only fatigue the attention, 
while they afford no satisfaction to the mind. The only question of per- 
manent importance was that of the Austrian succession. The emperor, 
having no sons, desired to secure his hereditary possessions to his daughter 
Maria Theresa — though by the will of his father they had been destined in 
such a case to the daughters of his elder brother, Joseph. The Pragmatic 
Sanction, by which in 1713, Charles VI. had declared his own will con- 
cerning his inheritance, had been confirmed by the Estates of Austria, 
Silesia, Bohemia, Hungary, and the Netherlands; and the great object 
of imperial diplomacy was to obtain the guarantee of foreign powers. 
The Treaty of Vienna secured the adhesion of Spain ; and 

. 1 • 1 1 J- April, 1725. 

it was commonly believed that a secret article provided tor 

a marriage between Don Carlos and the imperial princess, and the ulti- 
mate reunion of the great dominions of Charles V. 

140. A counter-alliance, known as the League of Herrnhausen, united 
France, England, Prussia, Holland, Sweden, and Denmark in opposition 
to the League of Vienna. The latter was joined by the empress Cath- 
erine of Eussia, and eventually by the king of Prussia, who deserted the 

M. H.— 21. 



322 MODERN HISTORY. 

Hanoverian alliance for that of the emperor. Only the profound and 
peaceful policy of Cardinal Fleury — prime-minister of France since 
1726 — prevented the outbreak of another general war. The death of 
the empress Catharine, and the quiet accession of George II. in England, 
contributed to the same result. Spain was the only great 
power which had lately encouraged the attempts of James 
Stuart to regain the English throne ; and by the Treaty of Seville in 
1729, Spain made peace with England, France, and Holland. The sec- 
ond Treaty of Vienna, in 1731, reconciled the last two nations with the 
emperor, and Spain also acceded within a month. A Family Convention, 
by which the Grand Duke of Tuscany named Carlos of Spain as his heir, 
completed the pacification of Europe. 

141. The next general disturbance arose from the War of the Polish 
Succession, which followed the death of Augustus II. in 1733. Frederic 
Augustus, son of that monarch and his successor in the Saxon electorate, 
was supported by Russia and by the emperor Charles VI., whose niece 
he had married, but whose influence he gained only by renouncing the 
claims of his family to the Austrian succession and giving his solemn 
guarantee to the Pragmatic Sanction. The king of France, on the other 
hand, determined to restore his father-in-law, Stanislaus Leozinski. The 
defects of the Polish constitution placed the country at the disposal of 
foreign powers. A pretense was indeed made of respecting the freedom 
of the election, but not only was money used lavishly in securing votes, 
but a Russian army was quartered in Poland itself and an Austrian in 
Silesia. 

142. Stanislaus, as a native of the country, was the more popular can- 
didate, and was actually ^elected by a large majority ; but a small number 
of electors crossed the Vistula to Praga and gave their votes to the Saxon 
prince, who was immediately proclaimed as Augustus III. and recognized 
by the Russian and Austrian courts. Unsupported by either his French 
or Polish adherents, Stanislaus became a second time a fugitive from 
Warsaw. Dantzic, where he first took refuge, was besieged and taken by 
the Russians in 1734, and the king, in the disguise of a peasant, fled to 
the court of Frederic William of Prussia. That sovereign protected him 
personally, while sending 10,000 men to join the Austrians in opposing 
his cause. The unhappy people of Poland sufiered all the injury of a 
strife in which they had no voice ; for the Polish succession was in fact 
only a pretext of which the powers of Europe availed themselves to fight 
out their own quarrels. 

143. France had already begun the war by seizing Lorraine in 1733; 
while Marshal Villars, with a French and Piedmontese army, conquered 
the duchy of Milan. Berwick, in command of the army of the Rhine, 
took Kehl, Treves, and Trarbach, and besieged Philipsburg, where he was 



WAR OF POLISH SUCCESSION ENDED. 323 

killed in June, 1734. Villars died a few days later at Turin. They were 
the last of the great generals of Louis XIV. The Spanish troops mean- 
while eflfected an easy conquest of Naples, where the Austrian rule was 
universally detested. The defeat of the imperial troops at Bitonto, May, 
1734, completed the acquisition of the mainland, and Sicily was reduced 
in a few months. Don Carlos, as Charles III., was crowned at Palermo, 
and thus began the reign of the Spanish Bourbons in Italy. The mild 
disposition of the young king, and the wisdom of his minister, Bernardo 
Tanucci — formerly a professor of law at Pisa — made the commencement 
of this dynasty far more beneficent than its later years. 

144. Austria having lost her last possession in Italy, all parties began 
to incline toward peace. Hostilities ceased in 1735 ; but the Third 
Treaty of Vienna was not signed until 1738. King Stanislaus resigned 
the troublesome sovereignty of Poland for the duchies of Lorraine and 
Bar, which had already been acquired by France. They were considered 
as the dowry of his daughter, and reverted on his death to the French 
crown. The former Duke of Lorraine, Francis Stephen, was indemnified 
by the Grand-duchy of Tuscany, and the French court withdrew its pro- 
test against his marriage with the imperial princess, Maria Theresa. A 
small portion of his former possession was secured to him that he might 
continue to be a prince of the Empire, and have a better prospect of 
election to the imperial crown upon the death of his father-in-law, Charles 
VI. The last of the Medici died before the treaty was concluded, and 
Francis became Grand-duke of Tuscany. Charles III. was acknowledged 
as King of the Two Sicilies, and resigned to the emperor his fiefs in 
northern Italy. 

145. The year before this treaty, Charles VI. had declared war against 
the Turks, in pursuance of his alliance with Russia. The Ottoman Em- 
pire was so far gone in its decline, that it continued to exist chiefly 
through the mutual jealousies of the European powers, neither of which 
would permit the others to' be aggrandized by the absorption of the 
Turkish provinces. 

Peter "the Great had died in 1725. His eldest son, Alexis, who had 
joined the Old Eussian party in opposition to his father's favorite re- 
forms, had, seven years before, been convicted of conspiracy and put to 
death, leaving only a son three, and a daughter four years of age. By 
the aid of the New Eussian party, the empress Catharine, who had been 
crowned at Moscow during the life of her husband, ascended the throne. 
On her death in 1727, Peter II., the son of Alexis, became Czar under 
the control of Menschikoff", whose daughter he married. The insolence 
of the prime minister became so unbearable that he was banished in a 
few months to Siberia — that vast and frozen region which served the 
Eussian government as a prison for political offenders. 



324 MODERN HISTORY. 

146. Peter was succeeded in 1730 by Anna Ivanowna, duchess of Cour- 
land, a niece of Peter the Great. She made peace with Kouli Khan, 
afterward better known as Nadir Shah, of Persia, by restoring the greater 
part of her uncle's conquests in that country ; and in 1735 began a war, 
first against the Tartars of the Crimea, and then against the Turkish 
Empire itself Miinnich, her general-in-chief, is considered as the founder 
of the Russian military system. By his masterly tactics, Azov was re- 
conquered and many victories were gained. The Austrian allies were not 
so fortunate. They suffered a disastrous defeat at Krotzka, and were 

driven from Servia, Bosnia, and Wallachia. By the Peace 
A. D. 1739. ' ' ■' 

of Belgrade, that important fortress, with Sabatz and Or- 

sova, was surrendered to the Turks. B-ussia soon made a treaty by which 

she retained Azov, and enlarged her boundaries in the Ukraine, but 

agreed to keep no fleet in the southern seas. 

147. During this year a colonial war broke out between Spain and 
England — the beginning of a long rivalry between the so-called Latin 
and Saxon races for the possession of the American continent. The 
boundaries of Carolina and Florida — the privilege of supplying the 
Spanish colonies with African slaves, and the right, claimed by the 
Spaniards, of searching English vessels for contraband goods, were among 
the points in dispute. Philip V. had fortified himself in 1735 by a 
Family Compact with Louis XV., who engaged to procure the restora- 
tion of Gibraltar to Spain, and to harass English commerce by means of 
a swarm of privateers as well as by his national fleet. Prizes amounting 
to more than a million of dollars were taken by the Spaniards during 
the first three months, but the capture of Porto Bello by Admiral Ver- 
non, and the subsequent depredations of Anson in his cruise round the 
globe went far toward turning the balance. 

148. The death of the emperor Charles VI. in 1740, converted this 
maritime war of two nations into a general conflict, known as the War 
of the Austrian Succession. The archduchess Maria Theresa, now in her 
twenty-fourth year, assumed the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia, and 
received assurances of friendship from England, Russia, Prussia, and the 
United Netherlands. France dissembled; the elector of Bavaria claimed 
the Austrian provinces in his own right as descended from Ferdinand 
11. and in that of his wife, a daughter of Joseph I. The queen of Poland 
was the eldest daughter of the latter emperor ; and though her husband 
had guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, he joined the secret alliance at 
Nymphenburg, of France, Bavaria, and Spain. The kings of Prussia and 
Sardinia and the electors of Cologne and the Palatinate acceded to this 
league, which destined the imperial crown for Charles Albert of Bavaria, 
while it apportioned the Austrian possessions in Germany and Italy 
among the various contracting parties. To this powerful coalition Maria 



WAB OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 325 

Theresa could only oppose the alliance of England, which was ineffective 
for several years; while her own army was feeble and her treasury 
drained. The empress Elizabeth of Eussia was friendly but absorbed 
at home by a Swedish invasion* which had been instigated by the 
French. 

149. The first blow was struck by Frederic II. of Prussia who overran 
and conquered the province of Silesia in less than four months. The 
important battle of Mollwitz, in which the Prussian infantry defeated 
the Austrian by the unprecedented quickness and precision of its fire, 
demonstrated the superiority of the military system organized by Frederic 
William I. The elector of Bavaria marched into Upper Austria where 
he occupied Linz without a blow and received the homage of the Estates 
as Archduke ; then turning to Bohemia captured Prague with the aid of 
the Sasons and was crowned as King. Maria Theresa took refuge in 
Hungary, where, presenting her infant son — afterward the emperor 
Joseph II. — to the assembled magnates, she besought their aid. The 
brave princes, though they had little reason to serve a dynasty which 
had overthrown their ancient constitution and avenged their fathers' re- 
sistance with the ax, could not resist the appeal of this royal woman 
and child in their distress. The hall resounded with their shout, " Let 
us die for our king, Maria Theresa ! " Magyars, Croats, Pandours sprang 
to arms, and 100,000 men were soon on foot. They were joined by the 
Tyroleans, who rose almost to a man ; and during the respite afforded by 
Charles Albert's absence in Bohemia, the whole force was thoroughly 
armed and drilled. 

150. The electors met at Frankfort, Jan., 1742, and gave their unan- 
imous vote to the Bavarian prince, who received the imperial crown 
under the name of Charles VII. But the new levies of the queen of 
Hungary were already in the field. One division under General Khev- 
enhiiller reconquered Upper Austria, invaded Bavaria, and captured 
Munich ; while a second, under the Grand-duke of Tuscany, the queen's 
husband, entered Bohemia. The long and hard-fought battle of Czaslau 
was gained by the king of Prussia, but at this point Frederic, who dis- 
trusted his allies, and had, moreover, accomplished his only personal 
object in the war, suspended hostilities, and concluded, the following 
month, a treaty with Austria. Silesia, with the county of Glatz, was 
the price of his neutrality. 

151. The French, thus deprived of their best ally, were besieged in 
Prague ; and though they managed to evacuate the city and escape, the 
sufferings of the autumn and winter reduced the 60,000 men commanded 



* This northern war ended in the surrender by Sweden of all her provinces east of tlie 
^ulf of Bothnia, which were added to the Russian Empire. 



326 MODERN HISTORY. 

by Belleisle to 12,000 before bis arrival in France. Tbe deatb of Car- 
dinal Fleury left tbe Frencb government in great disorder. Imitating 
tbe words of bis predecessor on tbe deatb of Mazarin, Louis XV. de- 
clared bimself prime minister, but be bad neitber tbe talents nor tbe 
industry to make good bis promises; and tbe slackness of tbe Frencb 
military movements soon betrayed the want of a common and efficient 
bead of tbe several departments of government. 

152. Tbe emperor Cbarles VII. saw bimself deserted by tbe Frencbj 
and disastrously defeated by tbe Austrians, while bis capital was once 
more in possession of bis foes. In these bumiliatiag circumstances, he 
consented to abandon Bavaria on condition that tbe remnant of his army 
might be quartered unmolested in some neutral state of the Empire. 
Tbe queen of Hungary received tbe allegiance of tbe Bavarian estates. 
At the same time great enthusiasm began to be felt in England for tbe 
cause of Maria Theresa. Walpole, after being at the bead of affairs for 
more than twenty years, was compelled to resign, and with the elevation 
of Lord Carteret, measures were taken for a more vigorous prosecution 
of the war. 

153. An army of 40,000 men, joined a, few months later by King 
George II. in person, entered Germany in tbe spring of 1743, and gained 
in June tbe battle of Dettingen. Tbe king of Sardinia, who bad already 
withdrawn from tbe League of Nympbenburg, now made a close alliance 
with tbe queen of Hungary, engaging to keep 45,000 men in tbe field 
on condition of an annual subsidy from England and some accessions of 
territory in northern Italy. Tbe French and Spanish Bourbons at the 
same time made a second Family Compact providing for war against 
England and Sardinia. Tbe " Young Pretender," grandson of James II., 
was furnished with a French fleet and army for what proved the last 
invasion of tbe British dominions by any member of bis family. It was 
delayed until 1745. In tbe absence of tbe king and the Duke of Cum- 
berland, tbe Pretender advanced within four days' march of London; but 
bis fortunes were ruined by the battle of Culloden, and the Hanoverian 
dynasty has ever since reigned in peace. 

154. The events of tbe intervening two years, though crowded and 
sufficiently exciting, produced too little lasting effect to require much 
detail. Louis XV. took tbe field in March, 1743, with an army of 
80,000 men commanded by tbe Duke of Noailles and Count Maurice 
of Saxony, better known to history as Marshal Saxe. Many towns in the 
Netherlands were taken, and as Alsace was now threatened by tbe Aus- 
trians, tbe king hastened with a chosen body of troops to its rescue, A 
severe illness at Metz nearly put an end to his life; and tbe Parisians, in 
their impulse of joy at his recovery, gave him the title of Well-beloved — 
a description which few sovereigns have so little deserved. 



FEANCIS OF LORRAINE, EMPEROR. 327 

155. The Union of Frankfort between the emperor, the kings of Prus- 
sia and Sweden, and the elector palatine, led almost immediately to the 
second Silesian War. Frederic II. invaded Bohemia and captured Prague ; 
but he was expelled from that kingdom and even from Silesia in a few 
months by a combined force of Austrians and Saxons. Silesia was re- 
covered the following spring. The emperor, meanwhile, took advantage 
of the engagement of the Austrian troops in this war to recover his 
hereditary dominion and reestablish himself at Munich. The Austrian 
army in Italy, which in 1743 had advanced almost to the kingdom of 
Naples, was this year driven northward nearly to the Po. 

156. A new Fourfold Alliance, Jan., 1745, drew more closely the in- 
terests of Maria Theresa, the elector of Saxony, the Dutch Republic, and 
Great Britain ; but the death of Charles VII., the same month, suddenly 
altered the state of affairs. His son, Maximilian Joseph, being but sev- 
enteen years of age, could hardly hope to receive the imperial crown. 
He made a treaty with the queen of Hungary by which he renounced 
all his claims to her hereditary estates and promised his electoral vote 
to her husband, Francis of Lorraine, upon their retrospective acknowl- 
edgment of his father's imperial title and guarantee of his own undis- 
turbed possession of Bavaria. 

157. The king of Prussia gained this year tAvo signal victories over the 
Austrians at Hohenfriedberg and at Sorr. Then turning against the 
Saxons, he conquered Lusatia and marched upon Dresden. His general, 
Prince Leopold of Dessau, also entered Saxony, captured Leipzig and 
Meissen, and defeated the army of General Rutowski at Kesselsdorf. 
Prince Charles of Lorraine was obliged to retreat; Dresden surrendered 
without conditions; and Saxony was at the mercy of Frederic. At this 
point the king of Prussia was willing to make peace ; and 

two treaties were signed at Dresden — one with the sovereign 
of Poland and Saxony, the other with the queen of Hungary. The 
former paid a large ransom and received back his Saxon dominions. The 
latter ceded Silesia ; and Frederic in return acknowledged the Grand-duke 
of Tuscany as Emperor of the Romans. Notwithstanding the protests of 
the electors of Brandenburg and the Palatinate, Francis I. had already 
been elected and crowned at Frankfort, and thus became the founder of 
the new imperial House of Austria — that of Hapsburg-Lorraine. 

158. The war went on between the Austrians and the French, and the 
latter, under Marshal Saxe, gained many victories in the Netherlands. 
Among the most brilliant was that of Fontenay, in which the king and 
the Dauphin were present, and the Duke of Cumberland was completely 
defeated. As a consequence of their victory, Tournay, Ghent, Bruges, 
Oudenarde, Nieuport, and Ath fell into the hands of the French. Their 
allies in Italy were equally successful this year. A new alliance of the 



328 MODERN HISTORY. 

three Bourbon courts with Genoa was formed in May, and their com- 
bined forces not only took Tortona, Piacenza, Parma, and Pavia, but de- 
feated the king of Sardinia at Bassignano and received the surrender of 
Alessandria, Asti, and Casale. Don Philip of Spain, brother of the king 
of Naples, entered Milan in triumph. The next spring, however, the 
Austrian troops released from Germany by the Peace of Dresden, gained 
a decisive victory near Piacenza, which was followed by a retreat of the 
French and Spaniards beyond the Alps. 

159. The sudden death of Philip V. severed Spain from the alliance. 
Ferdinand VI. did not share his step-mother's ambition for Italian con- 
quest, and he withdrew his armies with such precipitation, that all 
northern Italy fell at once into the possession of the Austrians. The 
city of Genoa was treated with inhuman cruelty by the conquerors, who 
even attempted to harness the people in the streets to their heavy artil- 
lery. A revolt succeeded, in which the Austrians were expelled with a 
loss of 5,000 men. 

In the Netherlands, the campaign of 1746 was no less fortunate to the 
French than that of the preceding year. Brussels, Antwerp, Mons, Na- 
mur, and other places were taken, and Saxe gained an important victory 
over Prince Charles of Lorraine at Raucoux. In 1747 an attempt was 
made to divide the allies by an invasion of Holland. Many important 
places were taken by the French forces under Count Lowendahl, In 
consequence of this attack, the Republican party in the United Provinces 
was defeated, and the hereditary stadtholder restored. This was William 
IV. of Nassau-Dietz, a son-in-law of the king of England. 

160. While victorious on land, the French suffered many disasters by 
sea. Their colonies had an important part in the war. Louisbourg and 
the whole island of Cape Breton were captured in 1745 by the people 
of New England and effectually resisted all attempts to regain them. 
On the other side of the globe, however, the French made the important 
acquisition of Madras. The year 1748 was marked by extraordinary 
efforts of the allies to retrieve their losses. England, Holland, Austria, 
and Sardinia engaged to arm 280,000 men ; and Russia, joining the alli- 
ance, invaded Germany for the second time in history. These gigantic 
movements resulte'd, however, in peace rather than war. France and 
Spain were exhausted; England and the Dutch States had sustained 
great burdens and received but a small share of' the profits of the contest. 

After some months of negotiation, the Treatv of Aix-la- 

Oct.,1748. ^ ' 

Chapelle was signed by the ministers of France, England, 
and Holland, and a few days later by those of Spain, Genoa, Sardinia, 
and Austria. All conquests were restored. The Treaty of Madrid, two 
years later, restored the commercial relations of England and Spain to a 
friendly footing. 



AGE OF FREDERIC THE GREAT. 329 

161. The eight years' War of the Austrian Succession left Austria still 
a power of the first rank, though deprived of Silesia and the Italian 
duchies. France, its chief promoter, in spite of the brilliant victories 
won by foreigners in her service, gained absolutely nothing, while the 
addition of $250,000,000 to her debt was among the chief causes which 
hastened the terrible catastrophe of the Revolution. She had lost, more- 
over, her cherished position as the arbitress of European affairs. The 
gay and frivolous courtiers who surrounded Louis XV. already congratu- 
lated each other that the world would last their day ; and a current motto 
of the time was, " After us, the deluge ! " 

162. England, by subsidizing all her allies, had greatly increased her 
influence in continental politics. The same series of events which had 
undermined the specious prosperity of France, had elevated Prussia, 
through the energy and military genius of her king, to a foremost rank 
among the European powers ; and the period of his reign is frequently 
mentioned even in universal history as the Age of Frederic the Great. 

Regency of the Duke of Orleans during minority of Louis XV. Quadruple Alliance 
of England, Holland, France, and the Empire. Peace of Passarowitz with the Turks, who 
retain the Morea, but surrender Temesvar and Belgrade. Duke of Savoy becomes king 
of Sardinia. Close alliance between France and Spain ; ambition of Elizabeth of Parma 
to establish her sons in Italy. Failure of the Mississippi Scheme. Pragmatic Sanction of 
Emperor Charles VI. aims to secure his inherited dominions to his daughter. League of 
Vienna supports, while that of Herrnhausen opposes the Sanction. War averted by pacific 
policy of Fleurj'- ; general cordiality restored by Second Treaty of Vienna. In War of the 
Polish Succession the elector of Saxony is the candidate favored by Russia and Austria, 
Stanislaus Leczinski by France. Duchies of Lorraine and Milan taken by the French ; 
the former bestowed on the exiled king Stanislaus. Kingdom of Naples transferred from 
the Hapsburgs to the Spanish Bourbons. Peter the Great succeeded on the Russian throne 
in turn by his wife, his grandson, and his niece. War of Anna with the Turks ; Azov re- 
taken by Mtinnich. 

Colonial war between Spain and England expands, upon the death of the emperor, 
into the general war of the Austrian Succession. England and Russia favor Maria Theresa ; 
the kings of France, Spain, Sardinia, Prussia, with the electors of Cologne, Bavaria, and 
the Palatinate, are leagued in opposition. Silesia conquered by Frederic II. of Prussia. 
Most of the Hapsburg dominions preserved to Maria Theresa by the loyalty of Hungary 
and the Tyrol. Elector Charles of Bavaria becomes emperor. Bavaria itself submits to 
Maria Theresa. The king of Sardinia joins her party, and the king of England comes in 
person to her aid. Last invasion of England by the Stuarts defeated at Culloden. Sec- 
ond Silesian War. Frederic II. conquers Saxony and dictates a peace at Dresden. The 
emperor recovers Bavaria; dies and is succeeded in that electorate by his son, in the em- 
pire by Francis I. Continued victories of the French in Hainault and Flanders — of their 
allies in northern Italy. Death of Philip V. and recall of the Spanish troops. Austria 
regains Milan and Genoa, but the latter is freed by insurrection. The French invade 
Dutch Flanders ; William IV. becomes stadtholder of the United Provinces. Treaty of 
Aix-la-Chapelle lessens the territories, without lowering the rank, of Austria ; confirms the 
rising importance of England and Prussia, and the decline of France. 



330 MODERN HISTORY 

The Seven Yeaes' Wak. 

163. After the desolating storm of war, Europe enjoyed seven years' 
repose, which may be regarded as one of the most prosperous periods of 
her history. Commerce flourished ; the minor arts of life were brought 
to a degree of elegance and refinement seldom before attained. Unhap- 
pily the causes of discord still existed ; and the ancient rivalries of 
France and England soon broke forth in a strife which surrounded tbe 
globe. The boundaries of the French and English provinces in North 
America had been left undefined by the treaties of Utrecht and Aix-la- 
Chapelle, and though commissioners from both nations were employed 
five years at Paris in discussing the conflicting interests, their labors were 
of no effect. France claimed the Ohio Valley as part of Louisiana — 
England, as part of Virginia ; and the former power attempted to unite 
her possessions by a chain of forts extending from the St. Lawrence to 
the Mississippi. 

164. Border warfare between the colonists of the two nations, secretly 
incited by their respective governments, was a natural result. Naval 
hostilities began with combats of privateers and mutual depredations 
upon commerce. As before, the quarrel of two nations became part of a 
general European war; and disputes concerning American possessions 
were fought out upon the plains of Germany. Hence, what is known to 
American history as the "French and Indian War," from the employ- 
ment of native savages by the agents and generals of France, is named 
in European annals the Seven Years' War, and its foremost figures are 
the empress-queen of Austria and Hungary and Frederic the Great. 

165. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had never pacified the mind of 
Maria Theresa in view of the loss of Silesia; and her resentment toward 
her best ally, Great Britain, which had counseled her to yield that prov- 
ince, was hardly less than toward Frederic, who had availed himself of 
her humiliation and distress to seize it by force. Her great minister, 
Kaunitz, had long ago confided to her a scheme for ultimately uniting 
France and Austria against Prussia. To further this secret design, 
Kaunitz himself spent five years as Austrian embassador at Paris. He 
learned that the foreign affairs of that court were ultimately decided by 
the king and his unworthy favorite, the marchioness of Pompadour, 
without reference to the Cabinet. To gain this all-controlling influence 
to her side, the proud and stainless empress condescended to write a 
flattering letter to the marchioness, and the alliance of Louis was gained. 

166. The next steps were to break with the king of Prussia by viola- 
ting the terms of the late treaty, and to renew an alliance already exist- 
ing with the Czarina Elizabeth. Frederic, in view of the coming contest, 
allied himself with England, Jan., 1756; and in the following May two 



THE SEVEN YEARS' WAB. 331 

treaties between France and Austria were signed, by one of which Maria 
Theresa bound herself to neutrality in the war with England ; by the 
other each party promised to furnish 24,000 men in case of attack upon 
the other, with the single exception of aggressions of England upon 
France. Hostilities began with the descent of a French fleet upon 
Minorca, which, in the absence of any sufficient English force for its de- 
fense, was speedily captured. Admiral Byng, who had been 
dispatched too late with a small squadron to its relief, made 
no effective movement against the French ; and such were the, excitement 
and regret felt in England at its loss, that Byng was sentenced to death 
by court-martial and shot. During the contest for Minorca, war was first 
formally declared by the French and English governments. 

167. Frederic of Prussia, finding that Austria, France, Eussia, Sweden, 
and Saxony were leaguing themselves for the annihilation of his kingdom 
and the division of its spoils, resolved to anticipate their movement by 
an invasion of Saxony. His army moved in three divisions, of which the 
king himself led one. At Dresden he seized the government papers, and 
caused the secret dispatches of the allies, proving their designs against 
him, to be published in justification of his conduct. Desiring, if possi- 
ble, to join the Saxon forces to his own, he avoided a battle, but block- 
aded their army of 17,000 men in its strongly fortified camp near Pirna. 
Then turning toward Bohemia, he met the Austrians who were marching 
to the relief of Saxony. The battle of Lowositz resulted in his favor, and 
on his return to Pirna he received the surrender of the entire Saxon 
army. The officers were released on their parole, but most of the common 
soldiers entered the- service of Prussia. 

168. Frederic remained in possession of Saxony ; but the armies of the 
League were now in motion, and the Diet of the Empire pronounced its 
sentence against him as a disturber of the public peace. The northern 
German states protested against this decision, and their sovereigns pre- 
ferred hiring out their subjects to serve in the armies of England, to 
furnishing the contingents required by the emperor. Nevertheless the 
allied armies numbered more than 400,000 men, while the combined 
Prussian and Hanoverian troops fell short of half that number. The lat- 
ter were commanded by the Duke of Cumberland, eldest surviving son 
of the king of England. 

169. Three French armies entered Germany in April, 1757 — that of 
the Upper Rhine being commanded by the Duke of Richelieu, that of 
the Main by the Prince of Soubise, and that of the Lower Rhine by 
Marshal d'Estrees. The latter gained a victory over the Duke of Cum- 
berland at Hastembeck ; but was soon superseded by the Duke of Rich- 
elieu, who had acquired a brilliant reputation by the conquest of Minorca 
and. was the most popular general of the day. Aiming to secure the 



332 MODERN HISTORY. 

neutrality of Hanover, he overran that electorate and Brunswick, where, 
under the mediation of Denmark, he entered into the convention of 
Kloster Seven with the English prince. This was soon annulled, but the 
king of England was so offended by the suspension of hostilities, that he 
never again intrusted his son with a military command. 

170. Frederic the Great, meanwhile, had invaded Bohemia, and gained 
a long contested and dearly bought victory over Prince Charles of Lor- 
raine, brother of the emperor, near Prague. Each army lost a marshal; 
but the entire Austrian camp and treasure remained to the victor. 
Charles, with a force nearly equal to that of Frederic, was blockaded in 
Prague; and the Prussian king even ventured to march with the greater 
part of his army to oppose Marshal Daun, who was approaching to re- 
lieve the Austrians. Being greatly outnumbered, Frederic sustained his 
first defeat at Kolin, and was compelled not only to raise the siege of 
Prague, but to retire into Silesia. It was a period of extreme depression 
in Prussian affairs. The French occupied Westphalia; an imperial army 
was in Thuringia; 100,000 Russians under Marshal Apraxin invaded 
Prussia and gained a victory at Gross Jilgerndorf, while a Russian fleet 
captured Memel. The Hanoverian allies were dispersed ; the Swedes were 
invading Pomerania; Brandenburg lay open to the Austrians, who in Oc- 
tober actually seized Berlin and levied contributions upon its citizens, 
though they held the place only a few hours. 

171. Frederic, in a momentary despair, even meditated suicide; but he 
took more manly counsel, and roused himself to collect the forces which 
were still on his side. Though Russia was in arms against him, the heir 
of that empire was his enthusiastic friend and admirer. The Duke of 
Richelieu inherited the anti-Austrian policy of his great-uncle the Car- 
dinal, and opposed extreme measures against Prussia ; finally the national 
enmities between the French and German troops lessened their efficiency. 
Under these slight encouragements, Frederic mustered the remnant of 

his forces, and gained at Rossbach near Weissenfels one of 

Nov., 1757. ° 

his most remarkable victories over the French and imperial 
armies. A month later he defeated Charles of Lorraine at Leuthen, and 
with his army of 33,000 men, killed, captured, or utterly dispersed, 40,000 
Austrians. Silesia was the prize of this victory. Prince Charles resigned 
his command and became governor of the Austrian Netherlands. 

172. A change in the British government was now added to the cir- 
cumstances which favored Frederic's interests. William Pitt, becoming 
premier, infused new energy into the war-policy of the kingdom. The 
Convention of Kloster Seven was repudiated, and preparations were made 
for settling the various disputes with France once for all on continental 
fields. A subsidy of $3,000,000 was paid to the king of Prussia, and he 
was requested to name the commander of the British forces in Germany. 



SEVEN YEARS' WAR —CONTINUED. 

Ferdinand of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke, was appointed; 
and liaving reassembled his army, he announced to Eichelieu that hos- 
tilities were renewed on the part of Hanover and Great Britain. 

173. Living by plunder, the French soldiers had wholly lost their 
efficiency. In a few months they were driven from Hanover, Brunswick, 
East Friesland, and Hesse, with great loss of lives. Count Clermont, who 
had succeeded Eichelieu, was defeated at Krefeld; Euremond and Diis- 
seldorf were taken by the Hanoverians, whose scouting parties penetrated 
even to Brussels. The French retrieved some of their losses by a victory 
near Cassel, but little more was accomplished this year. Frederic — 
though his masterly generalship was never more clearly displayed — had 
fewer successes than usual, owing to the perplexing multitude of his foes. 
A half-civilized Eussian horde — the regular forces being surrounded and 
followed by wild troops of Cossacks and Calmuck Tartars — invaded 
Pomerania and burned the town of Ciistrin during a siege, though the 
fortress still held out. The battle of Zorndorf, one of the bloodiest in 
the war, resulted in victory to Prussia. The Eussians lost 19,000 men 
killed and 103 cannon. 

174. Hastening into Lusatia to the relief of his brother, Frederic was 
surprised by Daun at Hochkirchen, and defeated w-ith a loss of his artil- 
lery and 9,000 men. France, England, and Prussia now signified their 
willingness to make peace ; but Maria Theresa, whose finances were more 
prosperous than those of Frederic, and whose resentment was unappeased, 
refused to listen. The Duke of Choiseul, lately placed at the head of the 
French ministry, failing in his more pacific overtures, made a new treaty 
with Austria less favorable to that power, and the war was less vigorously 
prosecuted by the French. They, however, repulsed an attack of Prince 
Ferdinand upon their winter-quarters at Bergen, and captured Miinster 
the following July. They were defeated by the British infantry at Min- 
den, and were compelled to withdraw from Hesse. 

175. The Eussians seized Frankfort on the Oder, and with the aid of 
an Austrian corps, defeated Frederic at Kunersdorf with great loss. He 
himself acknowledged that his kingdom must have been sacrificed if they 
had pursued their advantage. But Soltikoflf, their general, was jealous 
of the Austrians, and withdrew without reaping the fruit of his victory. 
Frederic reentered Saxony and drove out the imperial army which had 
captured Leipzig, Torgau, and Wittenberg. Dresden alone was held by 
Marshal Daun. 

Meanwhile a projected invasion of England by a French armament, 
under Charles Edward Stuart, was thwarted by the vigilant activity of 
the British navy. Admiral Eodney bombarded Havre and destroyed part 
of the magazines and transports which lay there ready for the expedition, 
while Dunkirk, Brest, and Toulon were all blockaded by English fleets, 



334 MODERN HISTORY. 

A French squadron managed to escape from Toulon and slip through the 
Straits of Gibraltar, but it was pursued and defeated by Admiral Bosca- 
wen oflP Cape Lagos in Portugal. A larger fleet which sailed from Brest, 
during an easterly gale which drove the blockading squadron off the 
coast, was encountered and dispersed by Admiral Hawke. Four frigates 
escaping from Dunkirk menaced the Scottish coast, and entering the Irish 
Sea, landed a force at Carrickfergus which plundered the town ; but 
after leaving the bay the ships were all captured. 

176. In 1759, Eussia, Sweden, and Denmark formed an alliance for 
mutual defense and to maintain the commercial neutrality of the Baltic. 
The French, in 1760, occupied Hanover and Hesse, defeated the heredi- 
tary Prince of Brunswick at Corbach and Kloster, and maintained their 
possession of the electorate during the winter. The Prussians were de- 
feated at Landshut with a loss of more than 10,000 men, killed, Avounded, 
and prisoners. Never was Frederic's position more alarming. An over- 
whelming force of Eussians was on the march, while three Austrian armies 
were moving to surround him near Liegnitz. He managed, however, to 
hold Daun in check while he totally defeated Laudon, and ultimately 
drove the Austrians from Silesia. The Eussians occupied Berlin three 
days, destroyed its foundries and arsenals, and imposed heavy contribu- 
tions upon the citizens. Frederic resolved to risk all for the recovery 
of Saxony. To this end he stormed the fortified position of Daun at 
Torgau, and with far inferior forces, gained a complete victory. 

177. In America the first two years of the war were favorable to the 
French. The English fort at Oswego was captured, with a great quantity 
of vessels and stores, in 1756, and Fort William Henry on Lake George, 
the following year. Cape Breton Island, which had been restored to the 
French by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (see § 160), was reconquered in 
1758 by the English, who also captured, the same year, several French 
forts on the lakes and the Ohio Eiver, and, in Africa, Fort Louis on the 
Senegal and the island of Goree. The next year a small British force 
under General Wolfe scaled the precipitous Heights of Abraham, and by 
a short, sharp, and decisive battle gained the fortress of Quebec, the 
strongest, in its natural position, on the American continent. The French 
commander, the Marquis of Montcalm, was mortally wounded, and Wolfe 

■also lost his life in the engagement. Montreal and all Canada were 
shortly surrendered to Great Britain. 

178. The death of Ferdinand VI. in 1759, changed the jealously guard- 
ed neutrality of Spain into an alliance with the French. As the crowns 
of Spain and the Two Sicilies were never to be united, Charles III. in 
assuming the former, resigned the latter to his third son, who became 
Ferdinand IV., though first of the name in Sicily. A third Family 
Compact between the courts of Madrid and Paris engaged Spain to de- 



GEORGE III. OF GREAT BRITAIN. 335 

clare war against England in May, 1762, unless peace should be concluded 
before that date. Unable to attack the English by sea, but trusting to 
their own ancient superiority on land, the Spaniards marched an army 
to the borders of Portugal, and required its king to renounce the British 
alliance for that of the Bourbons. Joseph I. replied by a 
declaration of war against France and Spain, and an appeal 
to England for aid. It was granted, and the Spaniards, after capturing 
Miranda, Braganga, and several other Portuguese towns, were driven from 
the kingdom by a German and English force under the Count of Lippe- 
Schaumburg and generals Burgoyne and Lee. The allies then invaded 
Spain and took several towns by way of reprisals. The English fleet cap- 
tured Havana in Cuba, Manilla, and the Philippine Isles, and an im- 
mense amount of treasure and merchandise. 

179. The death of the English king in October, 1760, and the accession 
of his grandson, George III., had an indirect influence in favor of peace. 
The first two kings of the House of Brunswick had regarded themselves 
chiefly as electors of Hanover; they spoke German, thought of England 
as a foreign country, and were always longing for their native land. 
George III., on the contrary, had been educated in England, and de- 
clared in his first speech to Parliament that he "gloried in the name 
of Briton." In the continental war England had little concern, though 
the electorate of Hanover was vitally interested. The war-party pre- 
vailed, however, so long as Mr. Pitt was in power; and for many months 
afterward the war went on, in spite of negotiations. 

180. Prince Ferdinand was defeated at Griinsberg and driven out of 
Hesse, but the French were in their turn repulsed from their position at 
Wellinghausen. The Eussians besieged and captured Colberg, and the 
Austrians took Schweidnitz by surprise, making prisoners of its garrison 
of 3,600 men, and gaining a stronghold in Silesia. Upon the retirement 
of Pitt from the English ministry, Frederic found himself again in an 
almost hopeless situation. Pitt had been his firm friend; Bute, the new 
premier, was his equally determined enemy. The new ministry not only 
withdrew his subsidies, but proposed to abandon him altogether for the 
sake of peace with Austria. Fortunately for Frederic, the empress-queen 
was at that moment so confident of recovering Silesia, that she rejected 
the English propositions with disdain. The death of the 

Jan., 1762, 

Czarina, and the accession of her nephew, Peter III., un- 
expectedly turned the scale. On the day of Elizabeth's decease, the 
young Czar wrote to the Prussian king, for whom, as we have said, he 
cherished a romantic admiration, requesting a renewal of their friendship.- 
He ordered his generals to cease from hostilities with Prussia and en- 
gaged to restore their conquests. An alliance was made the following 
May, by which each power promised to aid the other with 15,000 men 



336 MODERN HISTORY. 

in case of need. Sweden likewise made peace with Frederic. The treaty 
of Hamburg was negotiated by his sister, the Swedish queen. 

181. The reign of Peter HI. was short, for in July, 1762, his wife by 
a wicked consiairacy with the five brothers Orloff, deposed him and 
reigned in his stead as Catherine II. Herself the daughter of a Prussian 
general, she maintained the peace to which her husband had agreed, 
though she recalled the Russian troops which were preparing to serve in 
the armies of Frederic. Their presence, however, aided him to gain one 
more victory over the Austrians at Burkersdorf, and being now able to 
concentrate his forces, he recaptured the important town of Schweidnitz 
with 9,000 prisoners of war. His brother, Prince Henry, was no less for- 
tunate in Saxony, where the campaign of 1762 closed with a great victory 
over the Austrian and imperial armies at Freiberg. Austria consented to 
a truce, and to compel the Empire to accede to it, Frederic overran Fran- 
conia, Suabia, and Bavaria, even to the very gates of Eatisbon. The 
princes thus attacked withdrew their forces from the imperial army, 
which was compelled to treat for a suspension of hostilities. 

182. By the Peace of Hubertsburg, Feb. 15, 1763, Maria Theresa re- 
signed her claim to Silesia and all other territories in dispute between 
herself and the king of Prussia. Frederic promised his vote to the arch- 
duke Joseph, her eldest son, at the next imperial election, and engaged 
to restore the Saxon electorate with all its archives to the king of Po- 
land. Thus, so far as Germany was concerned, seven years of exhausting 
war, and the sacrifice of 886,000 human lives, had made no change in the 
boundaries of the contending powers. The heroic struggle maintained by 
Frederic the Great against such tremendous odds, heightened not only his 
military fame, but the political importance of his kingdom. This war, 
unlike that of the Austrian Succession, had been essentially a defensive 
one on his part; and his character, at this period, presented nobler traits 
than had appeared in the earlier years of his reign. 

183. During the same month with the treaty of Hubertsburg, a defini- 
tive peace was signed at Paris between France and Spain on the one 
hand, England and Portugal on the other. In America, all the French 
possessions east of the Mississippi, except the little islands of St. Pierre 
and Miquelon, were ceded to England, together with Grenada, Dominica, 
St. Vincent, and Tobago in the West Indies. In Africa, the Senegal 
country; in Asia, the French settlements made within fourteen years; 
in Europe, all the French conquests in Hanover and the island of Mi- 
norca were likewise surrendered to Great Britain. England restored Belle 
Isle on the coast of France, -and St. Lucia in the West Indies. Spain ex- 
changed the Floridas for the English conquests in Cuba and the Philip- 
pine Islands, and was indemnified for her losses through the Family Com- 
pact by the cession of all that "remained to France of Louisiana. 



53 



MAP OF THE REGION 
BETWEEN 

PARIS ai^dBEKLIN, I 

Showing the Principal Battlefields. 

A. von Steinwelir. "™e' 



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CATHERINE THE GREAT IN RUSSIA. 337 



E.E C.A.I=ITTJXi.A.TI01T. 

Seven years' peace and prosperity in Europe followed by the Seven Years' War. Rival 
claims of France and England in America, and resentment of Maria Theresa for the loss 
of Silesia, are disturbing causes. France and Russia— ultimately Sweden and Saxony also— 
are allies of Austria ; Great Britain, of Prussia. Minorca captured by the French. Frederic 
II. invades Saxony, takes Dresden, defeats the Austrians at Lowositz, captures a whole 
Saxon army and enlists prisoners in his own ranks; is placed under the ban of the Em- 
pire. The French gain a victory at Hastembeck ; occupy Hanover ; make a, truce at Klos-. 
ter Seven with the Duke of Cumberland. Victory of Frederic at Prague ; he is defeated 
at KoUn, but in spite of great disadvantages, victorious again at Rossbach and Leuthen, 
and regains Silesia. Under Pitt's ministry, England takes an efficient part in the war. 
The French are driven from Hanover, Hesse, etc. ; defeated at Krefeld, but victorious at 
Cassel. Russians invade Pomerania, but are ruinously defeated at Zorndorf. Disasters of 
Frederic at Hochkirchen and Kunersdorf, only partly balanced by the English victory at 
Minden. Renewed occupation of Hanover by the French. Blockade of French ports by 
the British navy prevents invasion of England by the Young Pretender. Frederic, though 
defeated at Landshut, gains great victories at Liegnitz and Torgau. Berlin occupied and 
despoiled by the Russians. In America the French are at first successful, but ultimately 
lose not only their forts on the Ohio, but Quebec, Montreal, and all Canada. Deaths. of 
Ferdinand VI. of Spain, George II. of England, and Elizabeth of Russia. Spain becomes 
a close ally of France ; Russia of Prussia. Portugal maintains her independence only by 
British aid. Victory of Frederic II. at Burkersdorf and recapture of Schweidnitz. Treaty 
of Hubertsburg ends the war between Austria and Prussia ; that of Paris, between Eng- 
land, France, and Spain. No territorial changes in Europe. In America, Florida and Can- 
ada acquired by England, Louisiana by Spain. 

Affairs of Russia. 

184. The reign of Catherine the Great, ^nd her conspiracies with Aus- 
tria and Prussia for the partition of Poland, are the prominent features 
in the history of eastern Europe during the remainder of the eighteenth 
century. That singular woman possessed talents only equaled by her 
crimes, and if her personal errors could be forgotten, the wonderful suc- 
cess of her administration would fully justify the title by which she is 
known in history. Many of the well-meant reforms which had contrib- 
uted to the downfall of her husband were safely accomplished in her 
reign. The funds of Church-sinecures were applied to secular uses; the 
army and civil service were reorganized to the highest efficiency; the 
whole empire was divided into its present "governments" for conven- 
ience of administration. The unfortunate Peter III. was refused the per- 
mission he humbly sought, to retire to his duchy of Holstein-Gottorp ; 
and was strangled in his prison by Alexis Orloff, probably with the con- 
sent of the empress. Ivan VI., the true heir to the throne, had been 
deposed by Elizabeth in 1741 and kept twenty-three years in a loathsome 
captivity which had reduced him to idiocy. He also was put to death 
by the orders of Catherine, who artfully engaged her former favorite 
Mirowitch in an attempt to release him. The conspiracy was made a 
pretext for the death of both, and the execution of Mirowitch, while 
M. H.— 22. 



838 MODERN HISTORY. 

eagerly and confidently expecting the promised pardon, concealed the 
Czarina's share in the plot. 

185. The condition of the neighboring nations, Sweden, Poland, and 
Turkey, encouraged Catherine's ambition to become the head of the North- 
ern States-System. The poverty of Sweden had long subjected her to the 
control of foreign courts. The whimsically named parties of the " Hats " 
and the " Caps," favored, respectively, the French and the Anglo-Russian 
influence. It was reserved for Gustavus III. — a grand-nephew of Frederic 
the Great, whom he resembled in genius and elevation of mind — to put 
an end to both factions and restore justice and order by an increase of 
the royal authority. This independence of Sweden was extremely dis- 
tasteful to Eussia, and led ultimately to a war, whose details we shall 
be compelled to omit. It was ended by the Peace of Werela and a sub- 
sequent treaty of alliance and friendship at Drottningholm, which main- 
tained the most cordial relations between the two powers during the 
great revolutions in southern and central Europe. 

186. The death of Augustus III. in 1763 left Poland in that condition 
of anarchy to which its wretched constitution made it at all times liable. 
Of the two factions which fought for the disposal of the crown, one waa 
supported by Russia, the other by France. Catherine, allying herself with 
Frederic the Great, was able to secure the election of Stanislaus Ponia- 
towski, whose weak and pliable character promised to make him a useful 
tool of the Russian interests. 

A description of Poland a few years before its extinction, will suffi- 
ciently reveal the causes of that event. Two-thirds of the nation were 
serfs, whose ignorance and squalid misery held them in a condition 
scarcely different from that of the brutes. They were incapable of pos- 
sessing property ; if a crop failed, thousands died of starvation. The re- 
maining third consisted of three orders of nobility, with clergy, lawyers, 
citizens, and Jews. Of the magnates, or highest nobles, there were not 
more than 120, of whom four or five were the heads of powerful factions. 
The middle class of nobles numbered 20,000 or 30,000 persons, and the 
lower nobility more than a million. These were an idle, ignorant, and 
often beggarly class of people, shut out by their pride of birth from the 
thrift and comfort which might have been gained by industry; yet the 
most insignificant of them could nullify the proceedings of a whole diet 
by his single veto. 

187. The citizens chiefly consisted of 40,000 or 50,000 artisans, who, 
scattered in wretched villages, were almost as absolutely subject to the 
oppressions of the nobles as the serfs themselves. Taxation fell only on 
Jews, artisans, and clergy ; but the finances were wholly destitute of sys- 
tem. The heads of all the departments of government were responsible 
to the Diet and not to the king. T-^ aggravate all these elements of 



RUSSIAN INTEBFEBENCE IN POLAND. 339 

weakness, the nobles clung to their ancient and constitutional privilege 
of forming armed confederations against the king whenever they were 
dissatisfied with his policy. So evident was the tendency to dissolution 
in so loosely constituted a state, that John Casimir, the last of the Vasa 
dynasty, clearly predicted, in 1661, the dismemberment of the kingdom 
by Russia, Austria, and the House of Brandenburg. 

188. The first interference of Catherine was in the apparently just and 
liberal demand for toleration of dissidents from the Roman Church. 
Many of the nobility were Calvinists, and during the century of the 
Reformation, Poland had numbered a million of Protestants, who enjoyed 
equal civil rights with their Catholic fellow-citizens. But a period of 
intolerance had succeeded ; Protestant places of worship were demolished, 
and under the influence of the Jesuits, a bloody persecution had occurred 
in 1724. The Poles could not fail to perceive the motive of the Czarina's 
intervention, especially when her further demand of political equality for 
dissenters had been followed by the entrance of a Russian army into the 
country. In an impulse of national independence, the Diet of 1765 re- 
newed all the intolerant edicts against heretics. Stanislaus was forced to 
submit; and Catherine, enraged at his evasion of her commands, secured 
as her instrument of revenge. Prince Charles Radzivil, the chief of his 
opponents, and formerly the enemy of all Russian influence in the 
kingdom. 

189. Through his efforts, with a liberal distribution of Russian gold, 
178 distinct confederations were formed among the nobles. These were 
ultimately united into one of 80,000 members, which assumed, according 
to custom, dictatorial powers. Its business was delegated to two com- 
mittees, one of sixty and one of fourteen members, the latter having 
power to pass resolutions of binding force upon the nation by a majority 
of votes. Eight men were thus entrusted with the fate of Poland. But 
the committees were soon found to be under the absolute control of 
Prince Repnin, the Russian minister, who arranged with the king, the 
Primate, the Grand Treasurer, and Prince Radzivil all the business that 
was to be brought before them. A conviction grew strong in the nation 
at large that Stanislaus had sold himself and the kingdom to Russia, and 
that his late semblance of independent action had only been part of the 
plot to deceive his subjects. A counter-federation was formed at Bar, 

with the aid and instigation of France, to dethrone the king 

1 1 1 -r. ^ A. D. 1768. 

and expel the Russians. Their armed force was defeated, 

and Cracow taken by the Russian general Suwarof, who thus began a 

long and celebrated military career. 

190. A declaration of war by Turkey partly interrupted the movements 
of the Czarina against Poland. The Tartars of the Crimea overran her 
southern provinces and committed frightful devastations. The campaign 



340 MODERN HISTORY. 

of Prince Galitzin on the Dniester in 1769 had little success; but the 
next year Komanzoff assumed the command and became in fact the hero 
of the war. He conquered Moldavia and Wallachia, while the fleet of 
Alexis Orloff gained a great victory over the Turks off Scio, and burned 
their ships in the Gulf of Smyrna. Among the vast projects of Cather- 
ine was the erection of a new Greek Empire on the ruins of the Otto- 
man. Her premature efforts for the liberation of the Greeks resulted 
only in misfortune; for as soon as her other plans required the with- 
drawal of her forces from the Mediterranean, the insurgents were left 
unprotected to the vengeance of the Turks, and the Morea became the 
scene of terrible barbarities. 

191. Fearing that both Poland and Turkey would be destroyed by 
the ever-increasing power of Russia, other nations combined to preserve 
the European balance or at least to obtain part of the spoils. Joseph II., 
emperor since the death of his father in 1765, had several interviews with 
Frederic II. to concert plans for checking Russian aggrandizement. In the 
summer of 1770, Austrian troops took possession of the county of Zip and 
overran Gallicia even beyond Cracow. These territories were declared 
reiinited to Hungary and were placed under Austrian governors. In the 
anarchy and terror that prevailed, the peasantry ceased from the culti- 
vation of the soil, and herded together in the towns, where pestilence 
soon broke out in consequence of famine. The king of Prussia, under 
pretense of forming a cordon of defense against the plague, marched an 
army into Polish Prussia. 

192. Russia, still involved in the Turkish war, could not resist these 

appropriations of part of her coveted prize. After long and intricate 

diplomacy, Russia and Prussia came to an agreement in the convention 

of St. Petersburg, and the empress-queen was invited to 
Feb 1772 

■' share the spoils of the doomed kingdom. Maria Theresa 

long resisted the nefarious scheme, but her counsels were overruled by 
her son, the Emperor, and Kaunitz, her long-trusted minister. When at 
length she put her hand to the document it was in these words: "Placet, 
because so many great and learned men will it; but when I am dead, 
the consequences will appear of this violation of all that has been hither- 
to held just and sacred." The triple treaty between Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia, providing for the appropriation of one-third part of Poland, was 
signed at St. Petersburg in August, 1772. Polish Livonia was assigned 
to Russia, together with the countries between the upper waters of the 
Dwina and Dnieper. Austria had the palatinate of Gallicia with Lodo- 
miria. To Frederic II. were assigned Polish Prussia except Dantzic and 
Thorn, and a considerable portion of Great Poland. The maritime dis- 
trict was of especial value as connecting the kingdom of Prussia with 
Brandenburg, and though the territory acquired by Frederic was smaller 



FJEST PARTITION OF POLAND. 341 

and less populous than the share of either of his allies, its value was en- 
hanced by the industry and wealth of the people. 

193. The Confederates of Bar had already been driven from their last 
stronghold, and the three powers took possession without difficulty of 
their respective shares in the spoils. Stanislaus was compelled to sum- 
mon a diet to confirm their usurpations; and an army of 30,000 men 
from the three nations marched into the territories still left to Poland, 
in order to overawe resistance. Those nobles whose estates had been 
seized were expressly excluded from the assembly. Only 111 members 
met at Warsaw, and in a series of balls and banquets of unexampled ex- 
travagance seemed to celebrate the ruin of their country with the insane 
frivolity of despair. The Diet continued in session nearly 

•' ^ -^ A. D. 1773-75. 

two years, in which time seven treaties were signed: three 
with Russia, two with Austria, and two with Prussia. A new constitu- 
tion guaranteed by Russia was adopted by the Poles; but as the crown 
continued elective and the king was rendered still more helpless than 
before, the ruin of the country was only accelerated. The successive par- 
titions of Poland have ever been regarded as among the greatest of po- 
litical crimes. True, the vicious constitution of the government, and its 
blind adherence to the worst institutions of the Middle Ages, centuries 
after other European nations had developed more rational and stable 
systems, might in any case have ensured its destruction. But the sov- 
ereigns who enriched themselves by its ruin might as easily and more 
justly have made their power manifest by the introduction of a better 
order of things. 

194. The Russo-Turkish war was ended in July, 1774, by the Peace of 
Kutchuk-Kainardji. The Sultan was glad to purchase the restoration 
of Moldavia, Wallachia, Georgia, Mingrelia, and some other territories by 
acknowledging the political independence of the Tartars north of the 
Black Sea, who were to elect their own sovereign from the family of 
Zenghis Khan, while they continued to acknowledge the religious su- 
premacy of the Sultan as successor of the Prophet. Russia was also con- 
firmed in the free navigation of the Black Sea and all Turkish waters 
for purposes of commerce. The dominion of the Black Sea and its shores 
never ceased to be a leading aim of Catherine's policy, and in the years 
following the treaty of Kainardji, frequent disputes arose concerning the 
independence of the Tartars. In 1783 the Crimea and Cuban or Little 
Tartary were formally annexed by Russia, and when- the people rose in 
resistance, a terrible massacre ensued in which 30,000 perished. 

19o. Paul Potemkin, the all-powerful favorite of Catherine, was the 
prime mover in Crimean affairs. He founded the new capital, Cherson, 
for the provinces of Taurida and Caucasia ; and in 1787 the Czarina her- 
self visited the newly-acquired territories at once to do honor to Potem- 



342 MODERN HISTORY. 

kin and to receive the homage of her Tartar subjects. Embarking at 
Kiev, she descended the Dnieper with a sumptuous flotilla of twenty-two 
vessels. She was joined by the exiled king Stanislaus of Poland, the 
victim of her wiles, and by the emperor Joseph II., who accompanied 
her in disguise and discussed their common plans for the spoliation of 
Turkey. To give the new dominions an air of prosperity, Potemkin had 
caused temporary villages to be erected along the route, and peopled with 
inhabitants brought from a distance and dressed in holiday attire. Herds 
of cattle grazed in the intervening pastures; but as soon as the gay pro- 
cession had passed, hamlets, people, and herds vanished like a scene in a 
play. No sooner had the Czarina returned to St. Petersburg than her 
embassadors at the Porte were seized and confined in the Seven Towers, 
and war was declared by Turkey against Russia. 

196. It was opened by an attack of the Turks upon Kinburn in Sep- 
tember, 1787. They were repulsed, and the next June their entire fleet 
was destroyed in a battle near OczakoflF. This place was reduced by Po- 
temkin in a six months' siege, and finally taken by storm with terrible 
carnage. The emperor Joseph declared war against the Porte, but his 
movements were ineffective, and he soon retired to Vienna. Sweden, the 
ancient ally of the Turks, began a war with the Czarina and prevented 
the sailing of Russian fleets for the Mediterranean. Christian VII. of 
Denmark, in fulfillment of treaties of friendship with Russia, sent an 
army to invade Sweden ; but England, Holland, and Prussia now inter- 
fered and compelled him to remain neutral. Frederic the Great had died 
in 1786 ; his successor, Frederic William II., having thus withdrawn from 
his father's alliance with the Czarina, entered into the war as an ally of 
the Turks. All these powerful interventions did not avert the loss of 
many fortresses by the Sultan; and they rendered peace more difficult 
because of the offense given to the Russian empress by the attempt of 
foreign nations to dictate terms. The death of Joseph II. and the dis- 
contents in Hungary and the Netherlands rendered peace a necessity, 
however, to Austria. Her war with Prussia was closed by the convention 
of Reichenbach, June, 1790 ; and that with Turkey by the treaty of Sis- 
tova, August, 1791. 

197. The war between Russia and the Porte was now at an end. The 
campaign of 1790 had been signalized by several Russian victories by sea 
and land ; especially by the storm and capture of Ismail by Suwarof, 
and the destruction of the Turkish fleet near Sevastopol. The summer 
of 1791 was not less disastrous to the Turks. But Prussia and Great 
Britain were now in arms to enforce peace upon Russia, and the last ob- 
stacle was removed by the sudden death of Potemkin, who had prolonged 
the war in the hope of conquering for himself an independent sovereignty. 
In January, 1792, the Peace of Jassy was signed, the Dniester being 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 343 

mutually recognized as the boundary line between the Eussian and 
Turkish empires. 

The portentous movements in France since 1789 disposed all European 
powers to suspend hostilities. But before entering upon that subject, we 
return to mark a series of events still more nearly concerning ourselves : 
the rupture between Great Britain and her colonies west of the Atlantic. 

Catherine the Great reforms the internal administration of Russia, and becomes arbi- 
tress of the States-System of northern Europe. Revolution effected in Sweden by Gustavus 
III. makes the royal power absolute. Constitution of Poland is a sort of organized an- 
archy. Catherine secures the election of Stanislaus Poniatowski ; finds a pretext of inter- 
vention in behalf of religious dissenters ; by conspiracy with Radzivil places all power 
over Poland in the hands of her minister, Repnin ; is opposed by the Confederation of 
Bar. l\irkey declares war in the interest of Poland. Russians gain many victories by 
land and sea; incite the Greeks to a fruitless revolt against the Turks. Invasion of Po- 
lish provinces by Austria and Prussia. Convention of St. Petersburg arranges the parti- 
tion of one-third part of Poland, whose king and diet are forced to confirm the wrong by 
treaties of Cession. Russo-Turkish War is ended by Peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji. Con- 
tinued aggressions of Russia north of the Black Sea. Annexation of "Taurida" and 
"Caucasia;" triumphal progress of Catherine followed by renewed war with Turkey. 
Austria and Denmark take sides with Russia ; Sweden, England, Prussia and the United 
Netherlands, more or less actively with the Turks. Austria concludes a peace at Reichen- 
bach and Sistova; Russia at Jassy. 

War of American Independence. 

198. By the Treaties of 1763, it will be remembered that France had 
relinquished her last continental possession in North America, though the 
cession of Louisiana to Spain was not actually accomplished until six 
years later. All Europe was filled with jealous apprehension by the in- 
creased power of Great Britain ; and when the blind and narrow policy 
of the home-government — a policy which every intelligent Englishman 
now condemns — had driven the American colonies to revolt, several 
nations seized the opportunity to injure their dreaded rival by aiding 
the insurgents. The details of the war must be sought in American his- 
tories; it can only be sketched here in outline, and chiefly with regard 
to the complications in Europe which grew from it. 

199. The colonies planted by the English in America now extended 
from the St. John River to the St. Lawrence. The settlements north 
and south of these limits had been acquired by conquest or negotiation 
from France and Spain ; and their people had been less trained in prin- 
ciples of civil freedom than were those who had been engaged either 
personally or by sympathy in the two great English revolutions. The 
French inhabitants of Canada accordingly remained subject to Great 
Britain rather than assume an active part in the rebellion. The colony 
of New York, on the other hand, had not only been more than a cen- 



344 MODERN HISTORY. 

tury in English possession, but it had derived from its parent Republic 
the impulse of the great war against Spanish despotism which was raging 
at the time of its birth; and it was first to join with New England in 
resistance to the oppressions of the British parliament. 

200. These oppressions took the double form of direct taxation and 
of restrictions upon trade. To the first the colonists opposed the argu- 
ment that they were not represented in the British government, and 
should not be burdened with its support; to the second, that as they and 
their ancestors had sustained the toil and peril of founding states in the 
wilderness, they might fairly claim the free and full advantage of all the 
facilities that nature had bestowed upon them, unfettered by artificial 
and arbitrary restraints. The Stamp Act, passed by Parliament in 1765, 
brought this resistance to a head. The act was repealed, upon a change 
of ministry the next year, but the odious principle was reasserted. In 
1767 fresh duties were imposed, but so strong was the resistance which 
they encountered, that they were remitted in 1770 upon all articles except- 
ing tea ; and this was ordered to be conveyed directly from India to 
America that its price might be lower in the colonies than even in the 
mother country. But the oppressive principle remained the same ; and 
it was not for mere pecuniary interests that the colonists were contend- 
ing. Cargoes of tea were seized in the harbors of Boston, New York, 
and Annapolis, and either returned whence they came or discharged into 
the water. 

201. The British government became more peremptory ; the port of 

Boston was closed, the charter of Massachusetts abolished ; and rebels in 

all the colonies were ordered to be sent to London for trial. The first 

general Congress of all the Colonies met at Philadelphia to 
Dec, 1774. ^ ^ ^ 

concert measures of resistance. Addresses were voted, to 

the people of Canada, to those of Great Britain, and to the king; all 

breathing unalterable loyalty, but remonstrating against what were 

termed oppressive and cruel acts. A levy of militia was recommended 

to the colonies. Reinforcements arrived for the British army quartered 

in Boston under General Gage; and the first serious collision' occurred 

at Lexington, Massachusetts, April 19, 1775, when a few farmers and 

villagers drove a whole English regiment with its cannon back to its 

quarters. 

202. In the subsequent battle of Bunker's Hill, the British forced the 
American position, but with a loss of half the attacking party. George 
Washington soon afterward assumed command of the colonial armies, and 
with fewer than 15,000 men, poorly equipped, proceeded to blockade Gage 
in Boston. The next spring the royalists evacuated that city and sailed 
to Halifax. So far the regular British troops have appeared at a disad- 
vantage in comparison with the hasty levies of the colonies. By treaties 



DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. 345 

with several German princes nearly 18,000 mercenaries were procured 
for service in America. This employment of foreigners to crush their 
just resistance, was felt by the colonists as an intolerable insult; and 
the Congress at Philadelphia agreed upon a Declaration of 
Independence. Eeviewing in a manly and dignified tone, ^' 

the injuries which the American people had suffered from King George 
III., it proceeded from the premise that "governments derive their just 
powers from the consent of the governed," to the conclusion that " these 
colonies are, and of right ought to be, independent States." 

203. The British force in America was now increased to 55,000 men, 
while the army of Washington, reduced by sickness and desertion, mus- 
tered at one time only 3,000 and these without uniform or suitable 
arms. A severe defeat on Long Island led to the abandonment of New 
York. Nevertheless by a brilliant winter campaign in 1776 and '77, 
Washington suddenly reconquered a great part of New Jersey. The 
European enemies of Great Britain were preparing to take part in the 
contest. A strong party in France overruled the natural scruples of the 
king; money and war-materials were placed at the disposal of the 
"rebels," and French privateers under American colors began to prey 
upon English commerce. Franklin and Lee, the envoys of Congress, 
were received with great enthusiasm at Versailles, and several noblemen, 
among whom the Marquis de Lafayette, the Count de Segur, and the 
Viscount de Noailles were most celebrated, enlisted in the service of 
the Eepublic. 

204. Still the balance in America was in favor of the British. They 
possessed New York, and holding the line of the Hudson, hoped by a 
junction with the powerful army under Burgoyne, who was advancing 
from Canada, to sever the eastern from the southern states. General 
Howe gained a victory at Brandy wine, Sept. 11, captured Philadelphia 
the 26th, and again defeated Washington at Germantown, 

' * . ^ ' A. D. 1777. 

Oct. 24. The more important scheme of the English gen- 
erals was thwarted, hpwever, by the defeat and capture of Burgoyne's 
entire army at Saratoga, Oct. 16. France now made an open alliance of 
friendship and commerce with the United States, followed by a declara- 
tion of war against Great Britain. The naval contest soon spread to 
every quarter of the globe where either nation had possessions; the 
French forts and factories in India were attacked as soon as the news 
of war arrived. Several surrendered without resistance ; Pondicherry 
was reduced by a siege of seventy days and its fortifications were de- 
molished. France lost her power in India, but gained in Africa, about 
the same time, the English factories at Senegal. Several of the West 
Indies were captured by the fleet of D'Estaing. 

205. In 1779 Spain declared war against England, and great prepara- 



346 MODERN HISTORY. 

tions were made for an invasion, such as had not been dreamed of since 
the days of Philip's Armada. But for some unknown cause the French 
and Spanish admirals raised the blockade of Plymouth; and the army of 
60,000 men which had assembled on the opposite French coast was with- 
drawn. The chief object of the Spaniards was to regain Gibraltar, which 
they besieged at the beginning of the war. The garrison, however, was 
reinforced and revictualed by Admiral Eodney, who on his way from 
England had captured a Spanish fleet carrying stores to Cadiz; and the 
fortress was valiantly defended three years by General El- 
liot against the most ingenious and persistent assaults. In 
the southern colonies of America, the English had also the advantage. 
A great part of Georgia had been conquered in 1778 ; and a combined 
attack upon Savannah by the American general Lincoln and the Count 
d'Estaing was repulsed with great loss in October, 1779. The next year 
the British captured Charleston and defeated General Gates at Camden; 
but most of their forts on the Mississippi were at the same time taken 
by the Spaniards. 

206. The discovery of a secret commercial treaty between Holland and 
the United States, by which the independence of the latter was fully 
recognized, led Great Britain, in 1780, to declare war against the Dutch. 
The same year Catherine the Great of Eussia declared an Armed Neu- 
trality, which was acceded to by Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Austria, 
Portugal, and the United Netherlands. The object of this combination 
was to protect the rights of neutral flags, and its principles were of great 
importance during the continuance of the war, especially to the northern 
nations whose territories abounded with timber, tar, hemp, and other ma- 
terials for the construction and rigging of ships. 

207. Several of the Dutch West India Islands now fell into the hands 
of the English, who also captured in 1781 a rich merchant fleet of thirty 
vessels ; but these were retaken by a French squadron and conveyed to 
Brest. A British fleet reduced Demerara and Essequibo ; but another 
squadron designed for the reduction of the Cape of Good Hope was de- 
feated off" the Cape de Verde Islands by the French under the Bailli de 
Suffren. In America the campaign of 1781 was disastrous to the English. 
Tobago and St. Eustatia with the small adjacent islands were taken by 
the French. Lord Cornwallis, on the mainland, after gaining a victory 
at Guilford, North Carolina, and capturing Gloucester and Yorktown, was 

besieged in the latter place by the French fleet and the 

Oct., 1781. * f J 

American army, and forced to surrender with all his troops. 
During the summer the Spaniards had completed the recovery of Florida 
by the capture of Pensacola, while in Europe they were retaking the 
important island of Minorca. If the French and Spanish fleets in the 
West Indies could have effected their desired junction, the entire British 



END OF THE AMERICAN WAR. 347 

possessions in that region would probably have been lost. This was pre- 
vented by Admiral Rodney, whose new naval tactics had already given 
fresh luster to the British flag, and who gained a brilliant victory over 
the Count de Grasse near Martinique and Guadaloupe, April 12, 1782. 

208. A change of ministry in England, consequent upon the events of 
1781, soon led to peace. The French court, always divided on the sub- 
ject of the war, was now alarmed by the unexpected display of power on 
the part of the American colonies, and apprehended their ultimately com- 
bining with Great Britain to the detriment of France. Secret communi- 
cations of the French government to its agent in Philadelphia, proposing 
to divide and thus weaken the several states, were intercepted, and in- 
duced the Americans to enter into preliminaries with Great Britain on 
their own account. A definitive treaty of peace between these two chief 
parties to the war, as well as between England, France, and Spain, was 
signed at Paris, Sept. 3, 1783. The thirteen United States were acknowl- 
edged as independent and sovereign over all the lands between the At- 
lantic and the Mississippi, the St. Croix and the St. John. France and 
England restored their respective conquests, except Tobago and the forts 
on the Senegal, which were retained by the former country. Spain kept 
Minorca and Florida, but could not purchase Gibraltar, though she offered 
Oran and Porto Rico in exchange. 

209. The release of her American colonies abated nothing from the 
prosperity of England, whatever it may have cost her pride. Freed from 
absurd restrictions upon their industry, the States became of far greater 
commercial value to the mother country than the colonies had been, 
while the relief from the necessity of supporting an expensive military 
establishment at so great a distance from home, was sensibly felt by the 
overtaxed English people. 

210. To America the close of the war brought only a change of perils. 
No governments existed except by the colonial charters, which were 
manifestly inadequate to the new situation. The thirteen states were as 
tenacious of their mutual and several independence as of their separation 
from Great Britain. All were burdened with debts far beyond their re- 
sources ; and the people who had so violently resented the moderate 
though unjust impositions of the Parliament, were scarcely more willing 
to tax themselves to the amount of millions. To the unthinking, their 
hard-bought independence signified freedom from all restraint. It was a 
momentous crisis in the history of popular freedom, now to be put on 

its most signal trial before the world. After four years of 

, May, 1787. 

threatened anarchy, delegates from eleven states met at 

Philadelphia to frame a plan of government for the whole country. The 

representatives from New Hampshire appeared two months later, but 

Rhode Island was never represented at all. 



848 MODERN HISTORY. 

211. The constitution then agreed upon and ratified within a year by- 
most of the states, has been esteemed by competent judges among the 
best models of government ever, devised. All the guarantees of personal 
liberty won by the English people in successive contests with the Crown, 
were adopted into the American constitution. The several states were left 
independent in all affairs where their interests could not conflict; but 
. matters of war or peace, postal service, coinage, and duties were intrusted 
to the general government. The President, elected once in four years, 
was, by virtue of his ofiice, commander-in-chief of the army and navy, 
and had a limited veto upon acts of Congress. At the first constitutional 
election, General Washington received the unanimous votes of his coun- 
trymen, and rendered not less illustrious service in the maintenance of 
peace and order than he had previously rendered in the establishment of 
liberty. Amid all the conflicts of opinion that have filled the revolu- 
tionary age that has succeeded him, history records but one estimate of 
Washington : " Whatever was the difiiculty, the trial, the temptation, or 
the danger, there stood the soldier and the citizen, eternally the same, 
without fear and without reproach ; and there was the man who was not 
only at all times virtuous, but at all times wise." . 

Jealousy toward England engages several nations in aiding the American Eevolution. 
The colonies resist taxation : retaliatory measures of Great Britain. War opens with the 
battle of Lexington. British army is blockaded in Boston. Battle of Bunker Hill proves 
the resolution of the colonists. Boston is evacuated. German mercenaries employed by 
the British. Congress at Philadelphia declares the colonies independent. Americans de- 
feated on Long Island. Howe takes New York. Washington gains victories in New Jer- 
sey ; is defeated at Brandywine and in a suburb of Philadelphia. British army of Bur- 
goyne captured at Saratoga : France and subsequently Spain and Holland make alliances 
with the United States. Gibraltar is successfully defended by Elliot against a three years' 
siege. The British are victorious in Georgia and South Carolina. Armed Neutrality of 
most of the European powers not directly engaged in the war. Surrender of Cornwallis 
at Yorktown virtually ends the contest. By Treaty of Paris, Great Britain acknowledges 
the independence of the United States. Florida is ceded to Spain. American constitution 
drawn up by Convention at Philadelphia. Washington the first President. 

Revolutions in Opinion. 

212. Among many signs of change which marked the latter half 
of the eighteenth century in Europe, one of the first and most signifi- 
cant was the expulsion and temporary suppression of the Jesuits. Its 
chief mover was Carvalho, Marquis of Pombal, chief minister of Portugal, 
and one of the most remarkable statesmen of his age, who with some 
justice attributed the decline of his country to the grasping ambition 
of the Order. All the gold and diamonds of Brazil had indeed been in- 
sufiicient to save the nation from bankruptcy under the bigoted and 
prodigal reign of John V. (1706-1750.) One-tenth of the people were 



EXPULSION OF THE JESUITS. 349 

immured in convents, while every form of industry was in foreign hands. 
By a treaty with Spain, Portugal acquired the Seven Mis- 
sions of Paraguay, whose people were ruled by the Jesuits 
(see Book III., § 186.) The treaty provided for the removal of the na- 
tives to Spanish soil; but the commissioners of both nations who were 
appointed to superintend the migration were successfully resisted by the 
people themselves under the orders of their teachers. Before the latter 
could be brought to terms, the great earthquake of 1765 destroyed a con- 
siderable part of Lisbon, and buried many thousands of its people. The 
Jesuits did not fail to represent this terrible catastrophe as a token of 
Heaven's wratli against the minister, but Carvalho was undaunted. After 
quelling with prompt severity the pillage and disorder which had fol- 
lowed the earthquake, and organizing the most liberal efforts for the re- 
lief of the sufferers, he proceeded with new vigor to the execution of his 
chosen policy. An attempt upon the life of King Joseph I. afforded a 
new pretext for severity, and in September, 1759, all the Jesuits in the 
kingdom were shipped for the Pope's dominions. 

213. Other governments soon followed the lead of Portugal. The ex- 
tensive commercial operations of the Jesuits excited many jealousies. One 
of their banking establishments becoming insolvent, its French creditors 
obtained a judgment against the whole Order. They were accused of many 
crimes, but the one which included all otbers was their allegiance to a 
foreign government. In 1764, after several years of contest, the Order was 
suppressed in France. Spain, Naples, Austria, and the minor states of 
Italy in turn broke up their establishments and expelled them from their 
territories. In all the Spanish dominions, the Jesuits were ordered to be 
seized on the same day and shipped to the States of the Church, to which, 
by their own declaration, their obedience was due. But the Pope refused 
to receive them, and even belied his chosen name (Clement XIII.) by 
ordering his cannon to be fired upon the ships which brought so unwel- 
come an immigration. The harshness of these proceedings moved, the 
displeasure of non-Catholic governments, and it was only in Protestant 
countries that the fugitives found personal security. A ^ „„ 

-' ^ '' A. D. 1773. 

new Pope, Clement XIV., moved by the urgency of all 

the Catholic sovereigns, dissolved the Order as a disturber of the peace 

of Christendom. 

214. The spirit out of which the Society of Loyola sprang, was perhaps 
extinct in Europe. The House of Hapsburg, for two centuries the pow- 
erful patron and protector of the Jesuits, had now at its head their most 
determined enemy. The emperor Joseph II. had contracted so strong a 
dislike for the severe instructors of his youth, that he thwarted their de- 
signs on every possible occasion. Protestant and Greek Christians were 
treated with an indulgence which was partly due to a just liberality, 



350 MODERN HISTORY. 

partly to a desire to foster the industrial interests of his states. Seven 
hundred convents were dissolved ; and 36,000 monks and nuns, thus restored 
to the world, were pensioned from their funds. The papal nuncios were 
informed that they would be received merely as political embassadors. 
Pope Pius VI. himself, who visited Vienna in the hope of conciliating 
the emperor, was not even heard upon matters of business, while Kaunitz, 
the all-powerful minister, treated him with studied personal neglect. 

215. The restless disposition of the emperor engaged him in long and 
frequent journeys. Rome, Paris, St. Petersburg, and the Crimea, as well 
as Holland and his own provinces in the Netherlands, were visited in 
turn. He cultivated an especial friendship for Catherine II. of Eussia 
with whom he discussed a project for reviving the two empires of the 
East and the West. She was to conquer Constantinople and all the shores 
of the Black Sea, while he seized Italy, and became in fact, as well as 
by title. Emperor of the Eomans. Meanwhile the Hungarians were driven 
into insurrection by the enforced use of the German language in their 
courts of law, and the violation of many ancient customs. Upon the 
death of Maria Theresa in 1780, her son was not even crowned in their 
capital, but caused the sacred diadem of St. Stephen, for eight hundred 
years the object of their reverence, to be carried to Vienna and deposited 
permanently in his treasury. 

216. In his foreign dealings Joseph was equally arbitrary. He ordered 
the Dutch to withdraw their garrisons from the barrier towns in the Aus- 
trian Netherlands (see § 99), and caused the fortresses to be demolished. 
War was only prevented by the armed intervention of France, which se- 
cured the Treaty of Fontainebleau. During the long mi- 

NOV., 1785. .^ „ TTT-IT TT 1 11- . . 11 

nority oi William V. the republican or patriotic party had 
gained strength in Holland, and it was now reinforced by a close alliance 
with France. The Orange party, on the other hand, which upheld the 
hereditary dignities of Stadtholder, High Admiral, and Captain-General, 
was supported by England and Prussia. In the latter kingdom, Frederic 
the Great was succeeded (Aug., 1786) by his nephew, Frederic William 
II., whose sister was wife of the Prince of Orange. When the patriot 
party even expelled the Stadtholder from the fortress of the Hague, and 
treated the princess like a prisoner, on her attempt to enter the city, the 
new king of Prussia invaded Holland with 30,000 men ; another revolu- 
tion was effected and the Stadtholder was restored. Some of the extreme 
republicans, being excepted from the general amnesty, found a congenial 
field for their activity in France. . The alliance with that nation was 
exchanged by the States for closer treaties of mutual defense with Eng- 
land and Prussia. The Triple Alliance, concluded at Loo in June, 1788, 
obtained, during the remarkable events of the next few years, an impor- 
tant influence in the affairs of Europe. 



REVOLUTIONS IN THE NETHERLANDS. 351 

217. The reformatory policy of the emperor occasioned great discon- 
tent in the Austrian Netherlands. Himself set free by philosophy from 
many superstitions of former ages, he desired the enlightenment of his 
people, but his efforts to make them prosperous in spite of themselves 
were not crowned with success. Their bigotry was alarmed by the sup- 
pression of convents, their patriotism by the abrogation of their ancient 
charters. A secret society in opposition to the emperor, formed in 1787, 
soon numbered seventy thousand members. Encouraged by the outbreak 
of the French Eevolutiou, they met openly at Breda and demanded the 
restoration of their ancient rights, appealing in case of the emperor's 
refusal, " to God and their swords." Imperial troops were expelled from 
Ghent and from all Flanders. A Declaration of Independence, and an 
Act of Union of the Belgian United Provinces were published at Brus- 
sels in January, 1790. 

218. At this point Joseph II. died and was succeeded both in the im- 
perial and hereditary crowns by his brother Leopold II., who for twenty- 
five years had ruled the Grand-duchy of Tuscany with equal liberality and 
greater moderation than had marked the policy of the elder prince. He 
restored, and even increased the liberties of the Netherlands, his armies 
at the same time overawed or defeated the revolutionary forces, and the 
Belgian Republic was dissolved, after an existence of scarcely a year. 

But the age of revolutions was only begun. Before the storm passed, 
every country in Europe was to undergo changes, though France was the 
scene of the most violent transformation. The oppressions of a thousand 
years were sure ,to be avenged whenever the masses of the people should 
acquire intelligence and a consciousness of their power. The latter half 
of the eighteenth century was marked by the multiplication of clubs and 
secret societies in every country in Europe, as well as by the universal 
diffusion of light periodical literature, instilling into the common people 
that skeptical philosophy which had already, in the minds of the higher 
classes, undermined all principles of civil or religious obedience. The 
success of popular revolution in America seemed to justify the leveling 
of all thrones and distinctions of rank — the more, because few took 
account of the severe moral training which had prepared the Amer- 
ican colonists for their unique and heroic task. 

219. Most of the governments in western and central Europe had, in- 
deed, outlasted their vital power. Spain, since the suppression of the 
Cortes, was enslaved by the Inquisition ; France, for nearly two centuries 
destitute of a national legislature, had become a mere autocracy, against 
which the parliaments made but a feeble and formal protest; Holland 
was rent by the Orange and republican factions; the Empire was stifled 
in obsolete and unmeaning forms; all the Austrian states were distracted 
by the well-meant but ill-considered innovations of Joseph II. ; Prussia, 



352 MODERN HISTORY. 

lately powerful under two sovereigns of remarkable ability, had no con- 
stitution which could secure a continuance of its greatness ; Poland 
and Turkey were in hopeless anarchy. In every country the intelligence 
of the best people was in advance of 'the national government ; and the 
institutions which had served the needs of the middle ages were no longer 
adequate to the multiplied demands of the modern era. 

220. The crisis was favorable to the ascendency of that brilliant com- 
pany of French philosophers who aimed to supersede all former writings 
by their Encyclopcedia.^ Contradicting the system of Descartes, who 
assumed the soul of man as the starting point in all investigations, they 
reasoned from a physical basis, and regarded thought, sentiment, and 
worship as mere phenomena of matter. Their speculations might have 
been almost as harmless as those of the mediaeval Schoolmen, if they had 
not been recommended by the clear and popular style of most of the 
writers; or if they had been opposed by any thing better than the hollow 
show of a state-religion, which served chiefly as the cloak of the worst 
of despotisms. Not content with attacking tyranny and pi'iestcraft, sev- 
eral favorite writers of the day assaulted the moral foundations on which 
the very existence of human society depends. Thus all things seemed 
tottering on the verge of chaos, and the revolt against authority was 
soon extended from speculation to action. 

221. In France the political causes of revolution were especially num- 
erous and powerful. At the death of Louis XV., the finances were in 
hopeless ruin. To advance his private fortune, the king had speculated 
in national securities and thus in the distresses of his people. So well 
was this understood, that the multitude, who in one generous impulse 
had styled him the " "Well-beloved," now bestowed upon his successor the 
title of " Louis the Desired." Louis XVI. was in his twentieth year 

when the death of his grandfather raised him to the totter- 
ing throne of France. His intentions were good, but he 

lacked that energy, both of intellect and of will, which alone could have 

saved the nation. 

222. The war with Great Britain consequent upon the recognition by 
France of the independence of the United States, not only drained the 
treasury, but excited among the chivalrous youth of the nation an en- 
thusiasm for popular freedom, most dangerous to the traditions of the 
Bourbons. A series of ministers undertook the difficult or rather impos- 
sible task of retrieving the finances. The Swiss Necker persuaded the 



*Chiefof the Encydopadists were Condillac, D'Alembert, Diderot, Helvetius, and Baron 
d'Holbach, whose house was considered as the head-quarters of the atheistical philosophy. 
Voltaire was a leading spirit, and may be regarded perhaps as the representative French- 
man of the eighteenth century, not only for his intellectual brilliancy but for his con- 
eeited antagonism to all authority, human and divine. 



THE STATES-GENERAL AT VERSAILLES. 353 

king to publish the treasury account. It was the first time that the 
nation at large had been intrusted with the balance-sheet of public rev- 
enue and expense ; and an immense loan was negotiated during the ex- 
citement caused by the sudden revival of confidence. Necker was com- 
pelled, however, to resign in 1781, and after several changes the finances 
fell into the hands of Calonne, a plausible but reckless character, whose 
mismanagement soon compelled the king to choose between reform and 
bankruptcy. The former could only be accomplished by the States- 
General; but so unsteady were the foundations of government, that the 
court naturally feared this appeal to the people. 

223. As a compromise, an Assembly of Notables — i. e., nobles, clergy, 
and a few municipal magistrates — was convened, Jan., 1787, at Versailles. 
After long and stormy discussions, they refused to pass a proposed self- 
denying ordinance taxing all land in the kingdom, including the hitherto 
exempt estates of nobles and clergy and even the royal domains. At the 
end of four months' session, the assembly was dissolved, and the king was 
left as before, with only the parliaments and his own arbitrary edicts as 
means of raising money. The clergy, being convoked in the vain hope 
of extorting a loan from them, only joined the parliaments in demanding 
an early meeting of the States-General. Necker, again in charge of the 
finances, reassembled the Notables to deliberate concerning the manner 
in which the popular assembly should be composed, 

224. It was decided, against great opposition, to summon more than a 
thousand persons, of whom at least half should be deputies of the Third 
Estate. A still more important question concerned the voting by orders 
or by individuals; if the latter method were chosen, the commons had 
the advantage, and the nobles and clergy naturally insisted on their 
ancient privileges. But the day had gone by when a noble could say, 
as did a member of the States-General of 1614 : " The relation between 
ourselves and the Third Estate, is precisely that of master 

and valet." The great assembly was opened by the king at ^ : ' "- ' 
Versailles. The commons attempted to decide the still open question 
by inviting the nobles and clergy to join them in the hall allotted for 
their debates. The invitation being refused, they assumed the exclusive 
title of The National Assembly. Subsequently the great body of the 
clergy and forty-seven nobles acceded to the request. But the question 
of precedence was already settled, and the Eevolution was begun. 

itE c.A.:piTTJXj.A.m:oisr. 
Expulsion of the Jesuits from Portugal under the ministry of Pombal. Similar policy 
of all the Catholic governments. Clement XIV. abolishes the Order. Liberal innovations 
of the emperor Joseph II. ; he violates the charters of Hungary and the Netherlands, and 
his treaty with the Dutch. The Belgian United Provinces declare themselves independ- 
ent. Accession of Leopold II. Causes of the Revolution : Growth of skeptical philosophy ; 
M. H.— 23. 



354 MODERN HISTORY. 

increased number and influence of clubs and newspapers; example of American inde- 
pendence; decline of most of the European governments; ruined finances of France. 
Convocation of the Notables, and of the States-General — the latter for the first time in 
175 years. 



QTJESTIOlSrS FOR. REA^IE^V^. 

Book IV. • 

1. What causes led to the rise of the English Commonwealth ? . . . . Jg 1-7. 

2. To the Eevolution of A. D. 1688 ? 67-74. 

3. Name the Stuarts who reigned in England 2, 18, 70, 73, 86. 

4. What sovereigns of England were also electors of Hanover ? . . 101, 153, 179. 

5. Tell the story of the Fronde 20-22. 

6. Describe the causes and effects of the Treaty of the Pyrenees 23-26. 

7. The character and policy of Louis XIV. . . .27, 62, 64-66, 101-103. 

8. His wars 30, 32-38, 63, 67, 75-79, 87-96. 

9. Name the cardinal -ministers of France. . . Book III., 35; Book IV., 20, 25, 140. 

10. What circumstances led to the War of the Spanish Succession? . . 78-85. 

11. Describe the Treaty of Utrecht and the circumstances which led to it. . . 97-100. 

12. Sketch the character and career of Peter I. of Russia. . . 55, 59-61, 107, 109, 111, 113. 

13. Of Charles XII. of Sweden 104, 105, 108-110, 112. 

14. Name other Swedish sovereigns of this period. . . .39, 40, 42-47, 49, 113, 185. 

15. What Turkish wars during the period ? 50-53, 56-58, 190, 196. 

16. Sketch the constitution and history of Poland. . . 40-44, 47, 52, 105, 107, 110, 111, 

186-189, 191-193. 

17. What can be told of Hungary ? 51, 54. 

18. Describe the Spanish colonial system and its results in America. . . 114-119. 

19. The Portuguese settlements 120. 

20. The English in North America 121-124. 

21. The Northern Indians ■ . . . 125, 126. 

22. Give some account of French explorations 127-131, 137. 

23. Of the wars of the French and English colonies. . . . 163, 164, 177. 

24. Of Dutch colonization 9, 33, 124, 132. 

25. Tell the history of the Dutch Republic during this period. 9,' 10, 31-35, 37, 38, 63, 75, 

140, 159, 160, 206, 216. 

26. Describe the character and reign of Louis XV 133, 151, 154, 161. 

27. Of Frederic the Great 149, 155, 157, 166-175, 180-182. 

-28. The War of the Austrian Succession 148-160. 

29. The Seven Years' War 165-176, 178-183. 

30. The War of American Independence 198-207. 

31. The establishment of the Federal government 210. 

32. The character of Catherine II. of Russia. . . . 181, 184, 188, 194, 195. 

33. Of the emperor Joseph II 214-217. 

34. Sketch the history of the Jesuits. . . Book III., 184-186 ; IV. 120, 128, 135, 212, 213. 

35. Name some of the causes of the French Revolution 218-223. 

36. How many kingdoms were ruled by Bourbons ? 100, 143. 

37. Name the kings of this family in France. . . Book III., 26; Book IV. 133, 220. 

38. The German emperors during this period. 25, 91, 97 (see 139, 148), 150, 156,. 

157, 214. 



BOOK V. 



THE AGE OF EEVOLUTIOl^S. 

A. D. 1789-1873. 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

1. The perilous crisis in France was aggravated at once by dissensions 
in the royal family, and by famine arising from the failure of a harvest 
as well as from the disordered and ruined finances. Thousands of half- 
starved wretches crowded in from the provinces and formed a camp on 
the heights of Montmartre, overlooking Paris. The Duke of Orleans was 
animated by a jealous spite against the king, and joined the rebellion, 
probably with some vague hope of raising himself to the throne. His 
residence, the Palais Royal, was a rallying point for sedition ; here a pro- 
scription list was drawn up, in which the queen, the king's brother, and 
several others were condemned to death. The queen — Marie Antoinette, 
a sister of the emperors Joseph H. and Leopold II. — added to the im- 
perious temper of the Hapsburgs a thoughtless frivolity, which led her 
too often to violate the customs and shock the prejudices of the court. 
In the present crisis she persuaded the king to dismiss Necker, and to 
concentrate near the capital an army of 40,000 men, partly German and 
Swiss mercenaries. 

2. Upon the news of Necker's retirement the mob burst into open riot. 
They promenaded the streets with a bust of the favorite minister at their 
head, and being attacked by the royal cavalry, in the Place Louis XV. — 
soon afterward called Place de la Revolution — shed the first blood in the 
long and terrible conflict. A civic militia, now mustered, outnumbered 
the king's troops. Arming itself with muskets and cannon at the Hotel 
des Invalides, this National Guard proceeded to attack the Bastile. The 
fortress, though bravely defended, capitulated after five hours' cannonade. 
Contrary to the terms of surrender, its governor De Launay and his sec- 

(355) 



356 MODERN HISTORY. 

ond in command were basely murdered, and their heads were borne upon 
pikes in triumphal procession through the city. The stronghold of cen- 
turies of despotism was leveled with the ground. The king weakly 
visited the city in token of his acceptance of a revolution which he had 
been unable to prevent. He was received by the astronomer Bailly, 
president of the National Assembly and now bearing the new title of 
Mayor of Paris. In presenting the keys, Bailly remarked with more 
sincerity than courtesy: "These, Sire, are the keys that were offered to 
Henry IV., the conqueror of his people ; to-day it is the people who have 
reconquered their king." Necker was recalled and the Marquis de La- 
fayette received a royal conimission as commandant of the National 
Guard. 

3. Many nobles and princes of the blood, perceiving the strength of 
the popular movement and the weakness of the court, now emigrated, 
leaving the king to his fate. The national representatives, charging them- 
selves with the preparation of a new constitution for France, assumed the 
name of Constituent Assembly. They numbered the best and ablest men in 
France, many of whom deplored and earnestly sought to alleviate the 
miseries of their countrymen. On the President's right sat the conserva- 
tives, who desired no changes in the form of government. In the center 
were moderate reformers, who preferred a constitutional monarchy like 
that of England. On the left were extreme liberals ; but even of these 
no man yet pronounced the word Bepublic. Among the ablest and by far 
the most remarkable of the popular leaders at this time, was the Count 
de Mirabeau, a man of brilliant talents and irresistible eloquence, but of 
no moral principles — who had squandered fortune and credit in the 
wildest dissipation, and was ready to serve either despotism or democracy, 
if either would pay the price which his necessities demanded. 

4. The disorders of Paris spread into the provinces, especially to those 
of the south-east of France, where the peasantry, rising against the pro- 
prietors of lands, plundered and even murdered those whom they regarded 
as hereditary foes. The National Assembly, moved by the proposition of 
a duke and a viscount, resolved upon a thorough remedy for these dis- 
orders, by abolishing those exclusive privileges which lay at the root of 
the popular discontent. The generous enthusiasm ran through the as- 
sembly, and all the privileged orders vied with each other in devising 

sacrifices for the public good. The ancient feudal consti- 
tution of France, so far, at least, as laws could repeal it, 
disappeared at a blow. Serfdom was abolished ; all restrictions upon 
hunting and fishing were removed ; civil and military appointments were 
thrown open to all ranks. Church rates were annulled — the clergy 
to be maintained by a general tax, thus relieving the rich at the expense 
of the poor. The Abbe Sieyes, who had in vain attempted to expose this 



THE FRENCH RE VOL UTION. 357 

blunder, exclaimed, " Alas, my countrymen ! they want to be free and 
know not bow to be just ! " To commemorate the death-blow of centuries 
of abuse, a medal was struck representing Louis XVI. as the restorer of 
French liberty, and the king himself presided at a Te Deum to celebrate 
the happy event. 

5. The main principles of the new constitution were embodied in a 
Declaration of the Eights of Man, which, by the express motion of La- 
fayette, included the right to resist oppression. Those who hoped to see 
a fair fabric of constitutional freedom grow from the labors of the As- 
sembly were, however, doomed to disappointment. A bread riot arose in 
Paris, conducted chiefly by women — who rousing each other to fury as 
their numbers increased, upon some unknown impulse took the road to 
Versailles. Lafayette followed with a division of the National Guard, 
and for some hours held them in check. They encamped for the night 
around huge fires which they kindled in the streets of the town. But 
next morning the tumult broke out afresh ; the mob entered the palace, 
killed the guards at the doors of the queen's apartments, and would 
probably have massacred the royal family but for the firm and loyal 
conduct of Lafayette. He persuaded the king to remove with his family 
to Paris, and take up his abode at the palace of the Tuileries, which had 
been unoccupied for a century. 

6. The Assembly also removed to Paris and now sat without distinc- 
tion of rank — nobles, priests, and commons occupying the same benches. 
But its independence was gone, for power was usurped by the Jacobin 
Club, which superseded the late meetings in the Palais Royal, and as- 
sumed inquisitorial powers. At first this noted Club included many 
persons of character and distinction ; but its violent proceedings soon 
repelled the more reasonable and moderate members. Its principles were 
diffused by its Journal and Almanacs; no fewer than 2,400 similar so- 
cieties were planted throughout France and became the terror of Europe. 
For a year, however, the Assembly carried on its work of innovation with 
comparative order and tranquillity. All sects and creeds were declared 
equal before the law; every citizen was admitted to vote for his repre- 
sentative in the legislative assembly ; inheritance by primogeniture and 
all titles of nobility were abolished. The old provincial boundaries were 
obliterated, and the country redivided into eighty-three departments. 
The parliaments were virtually abolished. Church lands and other prop- 
erty were confiscated, together with nearly all the royal domains. Mon- 
asteries were broken up, and monastic vows annulled. All ecclesiastical 
dignities were suppressed, except the offices of bishop and cure ; and 
these were conferred by the people, no longer by the king or patron. 
The Pope refused his sanction to these innovations; but all the French 
clergy were required to take the oath of obedience on penalty of depri- 



358 MODERN HISTORY. 

vation. Only four bishops consented to swear ; the rest, with 50,000 cures 
and vicars were subjected to penalties as non-jurors. 

7. The anniversary of the destruction of the Bastile was celebrated by 
a fete of several days, during which the king, in the presence of the as- 
sembly, the clergy, and the army, took an oath to support the new con- 
stitution. The queen raised her little son, the Dauphin, in her arms, in 

pledge of his fidelity. In that moment of enthusiasm all 
^^' ' ■ wrongs were forgotten ; but unhappily the day of hope and 

confidence "had no morrow." Mirabeau became president of the Na- 
tional Assembly, and at the same time secretly pledged his immense 
influence to the support of the king. His death in April, 1791, was la- 
mented by all who desired a settled order of government. The king, 
wearied of the constraint in which he was held, attempted an escape 
with his family to the army at Montmedy. They were apprehended at 
Varennes, and escorted with brutal insults back to Paris. Louis was 
suspended from his kingly functions, and a guard of citizen soldiery was 
stationed in the palace. 

8. By this time nearly all the European powers were preparing to in- 
terfere for the suppression of popular violence in France. The emperor 
and the Spanish and Italian Bourbons were moved by claims of kindred 
to protect the royal family. Catherine of Russia hastened to make 
peace with Turkey, hoping, indeed, to further her own designs upon 
Poland by engaging the forces of Austria and Prussia in the rescue of 
France. The divided jurisdiction of the border provinces between France 
and Germany called for immediate action on the part of the emperor and 
the Diet. By the famous Act of Aug. 4, 1789 (see § 4), several German 
princes were deprived of their feudal claims in Franche Comte, Alsace, 
and Lorraine, while the archbishop-electors of Treves and Mentz, by the 
civil constitution imposed upon the clergy, lost their metropolitan rights 
over Spires, Strasbourg, Metz, Toul, and Verdun. At the conference held 

at Pilnitz in Saxony, the emperor and the king of Prussia 
united in an appeal to the other European powers for the 
reestablishment of Louis XVI. in his former authority. Troops were 
consequently assembled by Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, and Spain. The 
Count of Provence, having fled from France, assumed command of the 
emigrant forces and established at Coblentz a little court which became 
the head-quarters of the refugees. The movements of the Coalition were 
delayed by the death of the emperor Leopold, and the assassination of 
the king of Sweden, who had been preparing to lead his own army in 
person. Both events occurred in March, 1792. 

9. Meanwhile the Constituent Assembly, having completed its labors, 
presented the new constitution to the king, who, now restored to his 
royal functions, confirmed it by an oath, Sept. 14, 1791. The best and 



WAE AGAINST AUSTRIA. 359 

most permanent part of their work was the abolition of feudalism and 
the arbitrary features of the government; tlie removal of fetters upon 
industry and worship ; the establishment of juries and the English mode 
of administering justice. But they had provided no checks upon the 
despotism of the mob, which was the most imminent peril of France. 
By a self-denying ordinance moved by Robespierre, the Constituent As- 
sembly declared all its members ineligible to the legislative body which 
was to succeed it. But France had sent to the first assembly all her best 
men, who had moreover gained, by two years' experience, some skill in 
the difficult and dangerous navigation of the ship of state. The second 
assembly proved inferior in talents and authority. Its ablest men were 
comprised in the Girondist party, which gained ascendency upon the 
first actively hostile movement on the part of Austria. The king was 
then compelled to accept a ministry composed entirely of Girondists, and 
to declare war against his nephew, Francis II., who had succeeded his 
father, Leopold, as king of Hungary and Bohemia, though not yet elected 
to the imperial crown. 

10. The confiscations of ecclesiastical and royal property had filled the 
treasury of the Convention, and three efiective armies were promptly 
marched to the northern and eastern frontier. Their first operations 
were unsuccessful. Two strong detachments were routed by the Aus- 
trians near Lisle and Valenciennes. The Girondists were now forced to 
make further bids for the favor of the mob by decreeing the banishment 
of all non-juring priests, the dismissal of the king's guard, and the for- 
mation of a federal army to be encamped near Paris. Lafayette, disgusted 
and alarmed by these movements, wTote from his camp on the Belgian 
frontier to the Legislative Assembly, demanding the suppression of the 
Jacobin faction and the clubs which had sprung from it. But his efibrts 
only hastened the tragedy which was to follow. 

11. The king had dismissed his Girondist ministry on June 13, 1792. 
One week later 20,000 rioters, armed with scythes, clubs, axes, and pikes, 
marched through the hall of the Legislative Assembly, where their 
leader, a brewer named Santerre, addressed the members in a violent 
harangue. Thence they thronged into the Tuileries, menacing the royal 
family with insolent language, but departing, after some hours, without 
actual bloodshed. The "federal army" was now mustering throughout 
France under the orders of the Jacobins. Prisons were emptied, and the 
vilest wretches, assuming the national livery, marched toward Paris, sing- 
ing the revolutionary song just written by Rouget de I'lsle and named 
from the place of its publication, the Marseillaise. The passions of the 
mob were still further inflamed by the massing of 80,000 foreign soldiers 
upon the northern frontier, and they burst into ungovernable fury when 
the Duke of Brunswick, commander-in-chief of the allied forces, published 



360 MODERN HISTORY. 

a manifesto, requiring the French nation to submit at once to its lawful 
sovereign, and threatening to level Paris itself with the earth in case of 
the least violence to the royal family. Not less offensive was the duke's 
promise, in case of prompt obedience to these orders, to obtain from Louis 
XVI. a free pardon for the crimes of his rebellious subjects. 

12. The guards of the Tuileries were now doubled in preparation for 
the hourly expected attack; but Mandat, their commandant, was sum- 
moned before the Commune, or Municipal Council, and summarily put 
to death. The cannon of the National Guard were turned upon the 
palace which they had been placed to defend. As the dense mass of in- 
surgents rolled onward toward the gates, the king with his 

Aug 10 1792 

family took refuge with the Legislative Assembly. They 
never returned to the Tuileries. The Swiss Guards fought bravely, even 
when deserted by the sovereign whom they served, but the greater num- 
ber were slain. The royal family were imprisoned in the Temple, a 
gloomy building which had once belonged to the Knights of the Order 
of that name. The guillotine* was set up beneath the windows of the 
palace, and among its first victims was a member of the queen's house- 
hold. 

13. The Reign of Terror had begun. Three thousand persons were 
seized by night in their own houses and hurried away to prison. Twenty- 
four priests, who had refused the civic oath, were the first victims of the 
September massacres. Two hundred more were slaughtered in the Church 
of the Carmelites. The same terrible scenes went on five days in the 
prisons of Paris — women, children, paupers, and lunatics were put to 
death for no cause, except a blind rage for blood on the part of the mob. 
The frenzy spread to Meaux, Eheims, Lyons, and Orleans, until all the 
prisons and asylums were emptied of their wretched inmates. 

14. The chief directors of the massacres at Paris were Danton, Robes- 
pierre, and Marat, the latter a bloodthirsty wretch whose malignity 
amounted to madness. Danton was well fitted by his enormous statur© 
and the deafening loudness of his voice to be the leader of a mob; by 
the singular inconsistency of the times he bore the title. Minister of 
Justice. Robespierre was small and of insignificant appearance, nor did 
the qualities of his mind compensate his personal defects. His intense 
and unscrupulous ambition made him, however, for two years the tyrant 
and leader of the Revolution. In the September massacres, he had the 
art, by working through others, to avoid all apparent participation. 

15. In the meantime, the grand army of the Coalition now numbering 



* This famous instrument of public execution derived its name from Dr. Guillotin, a 
member of the Legislative Assembly, who invented it from motives of humanity. Its 
constant and murderous employment during the Revolution dragged the name of the 
merciful physician into unenviable fame. 



LOUIS XVI. BEFORE THE CONVENTION. 361 

110,000 men, had crossed the borders, captured Longwy and Verdun by 
short sieges, and threatened Paris. They were opposed by Dumouriez in 
the defiles of the Forest of Argonne. Though no great battles were 
fought, the Duke of Brunswick, disappointed of the supplies of provisions 
which he had hoped to draw from a friendly peasantry, was compelled to 
recross the Rhine with a loss of 30,000 men. Elsewhere the republican 
armies were victorious ; and Dumouriez, after a hard-fought 
battle at Jemappes received the submission of the entire 
Austrian Netherlands. This result was largely due, however, to the revo- 
lutionary spirit of the people, who under French influence, immediately 
abjured their allegiance to the Hapsburgs, and again proclaimed the Bel- 
gian Republic. (See Book IV., §§ 217, 218.) 

16. The Legislative Assembly at Paris, after sitting less than a year, 
merged into the National Convention, which began its sessions, Sept. 22. 
At its first meeting, royalty was abolished and a Republic proclaimed. 
The Girondists, now the more moderate or conservative party, had the 
advantage both in numbers and intelligence; but the "Mountain," as 
the Jacobin delegates began to be called, exerted greater force through 
the audacity of its members and the support of the mob. Amid the 
excitement consequent upon the victories of Dumouriez, it was resolved 
that every French general should proclaim the sovereignty of the people 
and the overthrow of monarchy in whatever country he should invade, 
and should treat as enemies any people which should refuse "liberty, 
fraternity, and equality." In defiance of the treaties of Miinster and 
Fontainebleau, the Scheldt was declared open, and war-ships of the Re- 
public forced a passage up that river to bombard Antwerp. The Con- 
vention thus asserted itself the arbiter of international law, even setting 
aside treaties which former French governments had confirmed. 

17. After long and fierce discussion between the Mountain and the 
Gironde, it was decreed that "Louis Capet" should be brought to trial 
before the Convention, and on the 10th of December his accusation was 
read. The main articles charged him with having invited foreign powers 
to invade France, with having occasioned the loss of Longwy and Verdun 
by neglect of the army, and with having provoked the insurrection of the 
10th of August in order to sacrifice the lives of his people. The inno- 
cence of the king was ably set forth by three lawyers, who risked their 
lives in his defense ; but neither reason nor eloquence could be heard in 
the whirlwind of passion. Louis was almost unanimously declared guilty ; 
the mode of punishment was yet to be determined. Each deputy rose as 
his name was called, and gave his vote for death, exile, or imprisonment. 
The Duke of Orleans, who, under the name of Philip Egalite, sat as a 
member of the Convention, covered himself with infamy by voting im- 
mediate death. A bare majority agreed in the same verdict; the Giron- 



362 MODERN HISTORY. 

dists, who desired to save the life of the king, were equally lacking in 
courage and effective organization. 

On the morning of Jan. 21, Louis, accompanied by his faithful friend 
and confessor, the Abbe Edgeworth, was escorted to the guillotine in the 
Place de la Revolution. The crowd received the melancholy procession 
in unbroken silence, save when a few women cried for "mercy." Upon 
the scaffold the king attempted to address the people, but his voice was 
drowned by the beating of drums. When the fatal knife had fallen, the 
executioner held up the dissevered head, crying, "Long live the Eepub- 
lic ! " Louis XVI. had reigned nearly nineteen years. His brother, the 
Count of Provence, assumed the title of Regent for his nephew, Louis 
XVIL, who was still imprisoned in the Temple. 

18. The horror and resentment of the European courts led to the dis- 
missal of French embassadors and vigorous preparations for war. Great 
Britain made alliances with Russia, Prussia, the Empire, Sardinia, the 
Two Sicilies, and Portugal ; no states remained friendly to France except 
Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland. On the other hand, the Convention 
ordered a levy of 500,000 men, and declared war against the rulers of 
England, Holland, and Spain, carefully distinguishing between govern- 
ments and peoples. The confiscated treasures of Church and State, which 
had been accumulating for centuries, poured into the coffers of the Re- 
public greater wealth than even Louis XIV. had been able to command. 
The war thus begun was to continue, almost without respite, for more 
than twenty years, and to tax the physical and mental energies of Europe 
more severely than any other conflict known to history. Yet so com- 
pletely did each party underrate the resources of the other, that William 
Pitt, then the ruling spirit in England, expected to see the war ended 
in one or two campaigns. 

19. After his conquest of the Austrian Netherlands, Dumouriez had 
returned to Paris, hoping to save the life of the king, defeat the Jacobins, 
and establish a constitutional monarchy. These hopes failing, he resumed 
his command, and invading Holland seized Breda, Klundert, and Ger- 
truydenberg. He was followed, however, by spies of the Jacobins, who 
knew his enmity to their proceedings, and upon whose report the Con- 
vention sent orders for his arrest. Dumouriez, on the contrary, arrested 
the commissioners and handed them over to the Austrians. His army 
refused to march with him to Paris, and the disappointed general took 
refuge in the Austrian camp. He never again appeared in the civil or 
military service of France. 

20. Meanwhile the deadly strife between the Gironde and the Mount- 

ain led to the establishment of a Revolutionary Tribunal 
A. D. 1793. •' 

to decide without appeal upon all crimes against "liberty, 

equality, and the indivisibility of the Republic." A Committee of 



WORSHIP OF REASON PROCLAIMED. * 363 

Public Safety was invested with dictatorial powers. The Gironde was 
doomed to fall by the same mob violence which it had itself conjured 
up against the priests, the nobles, and the throne. In the country at 
large, a vast majority desired the return of order and justice. If the 
"French people," so often apostrophized and so seldom consulted, had 
been really predominant, a rational and beneficent government might 
have arisen upon the ruins of old despotism. The supremacy of the 
Parisian rabble was the downfall of all reasonable hope from the revolu- 
tion. On June 2, eighty thousand armed men surrounded and overawed 
the Convention, demanding the arrest of the Girondist members. Thirty- 
two were imprisoned, and seventy-three more who protested against this 
violence, were expelled. Many of these escaped to the provinces and took 
part in a counter-revolution which had already begun. 

21. About this time, Charlotte Corday, a young woman of genius and 
exalted character, a warm partisan of the Gironde, hastened from Caen 
to Paris, obtained admission to the house of Marat, and stabbed him to 
the heart. Making no attempt to escape, she bravely met her death by 
the sentence of the Eevolutionary Tribunal. Blasphemous honors were 
paid ■ to the memory of Marat. His heart, deposited in an agate vase, 
was placed upon an altar, and surrounded with flowers and the smoke 
of incense. Maddened by the increase of the forces of the Coalition, 
both upon the northern and southern frontiers, and strengthened by the 
accession of Eobespierre to the Committee of Safety, the Parisian govern- 
ment proceeded to still more ferocious violence. A levy en masse of all 
the citizens was ordered. A "Law of the Suspected" destroyed the last 
vestige of personal security, and crowded the prisons throughout France 
with more than 200,000 victims. General Custine was guillotined for the 
loss of a battle and of the town of Valenciennes. 

22. The captive queen, Marie Antoinette, was tried, condemned, and 
beheaded upon charges which, so far as they concerned her character, 
were not less false than vile and malignant. The Girondists were the 
next victims. Madame Roland exclaimed upon the scaffold, " O, Liberty ! 
what crimes are committed in thy nan^e!" Those who had escaped into 
the provinces were hunted to death like wild beasts. The Duke of Or- 
leans was guillotined amid the curses of the mob. In its zeal for inno- 
vation, the Convention abolished the names of months and days of the 
week, and decreed that every tenth day only should be a period of rest. 
The French era was dated from Sept. 22, 1792. Little remained of the 
ancient order except the rites of Christian worship, and these were abol- 
ished with insolent and brutal profanity. A woman personating Reason 
was enthroned at Notre Dame, and worshiped by the members of the 
Convention and the Commune. 

23. A counter-revolution had meanwhile broken out in La Vendee, a 



364 MODERN HISTORY. 

country noted for the simple and loyal character of its people. The 
republican generals were several times defeated ; but in the autumn of 
1793 the tide turned against the insurgents, who thenceforth confined 
their enterprises to a sort of brigandage among the marshes of the lower 
Loire. A wretch named Carrier was intrusted by the Convention with 
the work of vengeance, and so constant were his "drownings" at Nantes 
that the waters of the river were poisoned, and the fishes became unfit 
for food. No fewer than 15,000 persons were destroyed by his orders 
during the last three months of 1793. At Lyons the Girondists joined 
the royalists and defeated the army of the Convention. The city waa 
reduced by famine ; and it was then ordered that its name should be 
blotted out and that the poorer dwellings, which alone were permitted to 
stand, should be known henceforth as the "Free Commune." 

24. Toulon, having revolted against the Republic, received an English 
fleet into its harbor and an allied garrison of 16,000 men into its forts. 
It was besieged by a republican army, and the Convention decreed that 
the city should be taken or the general guillotined. It was captured, 
through the alertness and skill of Napoleon Bonaparte ; then an obscure 
young captain of artillery ; and the garrison in its departure carried sev- 
eral thousands of royalist refugees. 

E.EC-A.I'ITTrXj.A.TIOIsr. 
Famine in France, plots of the Duke of Orleans, and indiscretions of the queen hasten 
the Revolution. Necker dismissed, and the first blood shed in a riot. The Bastile de- 
stroyed ; the king accepts the revolution, and recalls Necker. Emigration of the nobles. 
Constituent Assembly abolishes all feudal customs and makes Declaration of Rights. 
Rioters storm Versailles. The king and Assembly remove to Paris. Supremacy of the 
Jacobins. Great numbers of the clergy refuse the civic oath. F6te of the Federation; 
flight of the royal family, their return. Conference at Pilnitz; Europe arms in defense 
of monarchy. New Constitution accepted by the king. Close of Constituent and opening 
of Legislative Assembly ; Girondists in ascendency. War declared against Austria. Defeat 
of the French. Muster of federals under Jacobin control. Irritating manifesto of the Duke 
of Brunswick. Attack upon the Tuileries, murder of the Swiss guards. Imprisonment 
of the king and his family in the Temple. Reign of Terror begun by September Massa- 
cres. Invasion of France by the allies. Victories of Dumouriez. Proclamation of French 
and Belgian Republics. National Convention 'declares itself the liberator of all nations. 
Trial and execution of Louis XVI. Coalition of all Europe against France. Defection 
of Dumouriez. Revolutionary Tribunal and Committee of Public Safety at Paris. Over- 
throw of the Gironde. Assassination of Marat. Levy in mass, and law of the suspected. 
Execution of the queen. Christianity abjured and Worship of Reason proclaimed. Royalist 
insurrections in La Vendue, Lyons, and Toulon. Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

The French Eevolution. — Continued. 

25. In Paris the Terrorists soon became divided among themselves. 
The ultra-democrats — called Hebertists from their leader — desired still 
wilder excesses of profanation and havoc. By reaction a " party of 
Clemency" had sprung up, to which even Danton belonged. Between 



:end of the beign of terror. 365 

the two stood Eobespierre and others who called themselves the "party 
of Justice," desiring terror still, but under regular forms. Eobespierre 
allied himself for a time with the party of Clemency, that he might 
crush the Hebertists, who were in fact guillotined in March, 1794, to the 
number of nineteen — their leader, after all his insolent bravado, meeting 
death like a coward. Danton and fourteen of his party were next ar- 
rested and guillotined after a show of trial. Eobespierre for three months 
reigned supreme ; and to prove that he was not to be accused of mercy 
or moderation, the butchery of the guillotine went on more constantly 
and atrociously than ever. But he had never been an atheist, and among 
his first acts was the obtaining of a decree from the Convention affirming 
the existence of God and the immortality of the soul. 

26. At the height of his power Eobespierre received intimations which 
alarmed him. He succeeded, nevertheless, in gaining absolute control of 
the Eevolutionary Tribunal, whose powers were enormously increased, so 
that the lives of the whole French nation were at his disposal. Fourteen 
hundred heads fell beneath the guillotine in less than seven weeks. A 
secret proscription-list was discovered, containing the most illustrious 
names in the Convention. But the confederacy against Eobespierre gath- 
ered strength, and on the 27th of July, suddenly declared itself. Vainly 
striving to obtain a hearing, he was carried out together with four of 
his associates amid tumultuous cries of "Down with the tyrant!" The 
Commune armed in his defense, broke open his prison and carried him 
in triumph to the Hotel de Ville. The troops of the Convention sur- 
rounded the building; the prisoners surrendered, and at sunrise the next 
morning were led out to execution. As the head of Eobespierre fell, the 
shouts of the multitude proclaimed that the Eeign of Terror was ended. 
Eighty of his accomplices, including the infamous Carrier, followed him 
to the guillotine. 

27. A counter-movement thus began, which destroyed the Jacobin Club 
and the influence of the Commune. The seventy-three deputies who had 
protested against the imprisonment of the Girondists were readmitted to 
the Convention ; 10,000 of the " suspected " were released from the dun- 
geons of Paris alone ; decrees for the banishment of priests and nobles, 
and for the death of English and Hanoverian prisoners, were repealed ; 
divine worship was restored. The reckless conduct of the revolutionary 
government, followed by the hardships of a severe winter, had produced 
so frightful a scarcity, that each inhabitant of Paris had to be put upon 
a fixed allowance of bread. The rich being proscribed, the poor were 
without employment. Assignats — the paper money of the time — had 
fallen so low, that 24,000 francs were paid for a load of fire-wood, and 
6,000 for a single fare in a hackney coach. In the provinces, especially 
in the south, the counter-revolution was even more violent, and the 



366 ■ MODERN HISTORY. 

Jacobins became in turn the victims of the " White Terror " — a system 
of wholesale massacres — so called to distinguish it from the " Red Ter- 
ror" of which they had been authors. Scarcely a town of southern 
France was without its band of assassins, led, in most cases, by an exiled 
royalist or Girondist, who avenged his own wrongs by fresh barbarities. 

28. During the year 1794, France had thirteen armies in the field, 
numbering between 600,000 and 700,000 men. On the side of the Neth- 
erlands and Germany, the allies were posted in lines extending with little 
interruption from Ypres through Treves, Mentz, and Heidelberg, to Basle. 
Most of them were subsidized by England, whose commercial interest 
affected by the war was greater, though her political concern was less 
than that of any other power. The king of Prussia was absorbed in his 
designs upon Poland, and a strong party in Austria, including the chief 
minister, preferred a share of Polish spoils or the prosecution of the 
emperor's claims upon Bavaria, to war with France. Francis II. accord- 
ingly withdrew to Vienna and abandoned the Austrian Netherlands. To 
keep up appearances with the allies, the imperial armies were left in the 
field, with orders to dissemble and even suffer themselves to be defeated, 
rather than waste their forces. They were in fact beaten by inferior 
numbers at Fleurus, and the Belgian towns without delay opened their 
gates to the French. 

29. The republican party in Holland welcomed the French, who by 
a series of easy victories obtained possession of the whole country. The 
Prince of Orange took refuge in England, and the States-General, abolish- 
ing the stadtholderate, proclaimed the Batavian Republic in close alliance 

with that of France. The following April peace was signed 

A. D 1795. cj J. i a 

at Basle between Prussia and the French, the latter retain- 
ing the provinces on the left bank of the Rhine. The fickle, selfish, and 
short-sighted policy of Frederic William II. was a chief cause of his 
subsequent calamities. Most ardent in promoting the Coalition, he was 
now the first to desert it. Instead of performing his allotted part in the 
military service, he had spent the English subsidies in obtaining larger 
shares of Poland; while by opening a way for the French into the heart 
of the Empire he was preparing for the despoiling of his own kingdom 
ten or twelve years later. 

30. By their operations in the south-east, the French had grasped 
the keys of Italy, in capturing Mont Cenis and the passes of the Mari- 
time Alps. Alarmed by their advance, the Grand-duke of Tuscany aban- 
doned his brother the emperor, revoked his adherence to -the Coalition, 
and signed a treaty of neutrality with the French. The latter had been 
less successful on the sea. Corsica had revolted and placed itself under 
the government of Great Britain. Lord Howe had gained a great victory 
off Ushant over a French fleet of superior force to his own ; and in the 



TEE FRENCH DIBECTOBY. 367 

West Indies, Martinique, St. Lucie, Guadaloupe, and St. Domingo were 
successively captured by the English. 

31. The year 1796 was mainly spent in negotiations. The Diet at 
Eatisbon expressed a desire for peace, and when this failed to be nego- 
tiated several princes of the Empire made separate treaties with France 
bv the mediation of Prussia. The death, in his loathsome 

•' June, 1795. 

dungeon, of the young king Louis XVII. opened the way 

for peace between the king of Spain and the French Republic, for 

so long as the young prince lived, the honor of his kinsman demanded 

his liberation as the first condition of any treaty. By a peace signed 

in July, Spain recognized both the French and the Batavian Republic. 

The worthless favorite, Godoy, who ruled the court of Madrid, received 

the title Prince of the Peace, for his share in the treaty which diffused 

unbounded joy throughout the country. 

32. A fresh insurrection in La Vendee, led by generals Stofflet and 
Charette, was aided by the descent of an English squadron bearing 3,000 
French emigrants. The latter proclaimed Louis XVIII. and established 
themselves on the island or peninsula of Quiberon ; but they were re- 
duced by General Hoche, who ordered all the survivors to be shot. 
Charette retaliated by the massacre of more than a thousand republicans 
who were in his power. The insurgents on the mainland were not more 
fortunate. In February and March, 1796, their two generals were cap- 
tured, and their execution ended the Vendean war which had cost the 
lives of 100,000 Frenchmen. 

33. A new revolution at Paris had now overthrown the Constitution 
of 1793, and restored to the middle class its natural importance in the 
government. The legislative power was vested in two Councils, the one 
consisting of five hundred members, the other of 250. The latter, com- 
posed of men over forty years of age, was called the Council of the 
Ancients. The former alone could propose laws, but the consent of the 
latter was essential to their enactment. The executive power was in- 
trusted to a Directory of five persons who were chosen by the Ancients 
from a list of ten presented by the Five Hundred. The new constitu- 
tion was not established without armed resistance, led by the royalists 
and persons formerly of rank, who, after the fall of Robespierre, had 
returned in great numbers to Paris. Between 25,000 and 30,000 persons 
attacked the Tuileries where the Convention was sitting, but the prompt 
and decisive measures of General Bonaparte, who had posted his cannon 
around the palace, gained a victory for the government. General am- 
nesty, except to emigrants and their families, was now proclaimed ; Bel- 
gium was annexed to France ; and the Convention closed its tragical 
history of three years and two months by declaring itself dissolved. 

34. The Directory began its administration with a treasury absolutely 



368 MODERN HI8T0BY. 

empty, a paper currency so reduced that it was not worth the expense 
of printing it, and a starving mob to be maintained at the 
'' ' '^' charge of the government. Each poor inhabitant of Paris 

had to subsist upon two ounces of bread and a handful of rice each day, 
and even this wretched pittance often failed. The army was without 
clothes or rations ; roads, bridges, and canals had fallen into ruin during 
the reign of assassination which called itself a government, while bands 
•of robbers scoured the country in every direction, plundering and mur- 
dering without check. Under the more just and orderly management 
of the Directory, civilization revived, public confidence was restored, 
commerce began to flourish, and abundance took the place of scarcity. 
The advantages arising from the abolition of the old restraints upon 
industry were now first perceived. 

35. But, not contented with prosperity at home, the Eepublic began 
with energy to direct its movements abroad, and the Revolution became 
aggressive, aiming to overthrow or radically reform all existing govern- 
ments. Thus the war became universal. Holland, by her subserviency 
to France, was already involved in a war with Great Britain, by which 
she had lost colonies on both sides of the world. Demerara, Berbice, and 
Essequibo in the West, Ceylon, Malacca, the Spice Islands, Cochin, and 
other settlements in the East Indies, as well as the Cape of Good Hope 
in Africa, were the prizes of the English. The French operations on 
the Rhine during 1795 resulted mainly in disaster. In their lines around 
Mentz they were attacked by the Austrian general Clairfait, and ruin- 
ously defeated, with the loss of all their artillery, ammunition, and bag- 
gage. This was partly owing to the treachery of Pichegru, the French 
general, who, like Dumouriez, had dreamed of playing the part of Monk 
in England, and restoring the Bourbons to their throne. His indecisive 
movements, however, only lost him the confidence of the Directory, and 
he retired from the army. In 1797 he was imprisoned in the Temple, 
and, a few months later, was transported in an iron cage to Cayenne. 

36. For the campaign of 1796, three French armies were voted by the 
Directory ; two in Germany under generals Moreau and Jourdan, and 
one in Italy under Bonaparte. The Italian campaign, conducted in his 
twenty-seventh year, was the opening act in the surprising military 
career of Bonaparte. He found his army of 35,000 men at Nice, in a 
wretched state of disorder and inefficiency through the neglect of the 
government. But he soon infused into them his own energetic spirit, 
firing their imaginations with promises of wealth in Italy and applause 
in France, and without delay marched toward Genoa. The Austrian 
army was at Tortona and Alessandria, the Sardinian at Ceva. A strong 
detachment of the former was defeated at Montenotte, and by capturing 
the fortress of Cherasco, Bonaparte separated the Sardinians from their 



BONAPARTE IN ITALY. 369 

allies. The old and feeble king, Victor Amadeus, renounced the Co- 
alition and made peace with France, ceding to the Eepublic the duchy 
of Savoy and the county of Nice, and expelling all French emigrants 
from his dominions, including even his own daughters, who were married 
to the two brothers of Louis XVI. The strongest fortresses of his king- 
dom were placed as securities in the hands of the French, until the con- 
clusion of a general peace. 

37. Bonaparte next defeated the Austrians by a furious battle at Lodi 
which gained him all Lombardy except the city and fortress 

of Mantua. Fixing his head-quarters at Milan he proceeded 
to sell peace to the minor princes of Italy at the price of heavy contri- 
butions. Not only money and war-materials were exacted, but inestima- 
ble works of art, with which Paris was afterward adorned. The great 
object with the French was now the reduction of Mantua, the strongest 
place in Italy, and the key to all further operations against Austria. It 
was besieged seven months, and the strenuous efforts of the imperial gen- 
erals to relieve it showed their sense of itB importance. Marshal Wurm- 
ser with 70,000 men, twice advanced from the Tyrol for that purpose; 
but he was defeated at Brescia and Castiglione, at Roveredo, and Bas- 
sano. Alvinzi, with almost equal numbers, was not more successful ; he 
was routed by a three days' battle at Arcole, and still more signally at 
Eivoli, where the triumph of the French was won against tremendous 
odds by the perfection of military science. Mantua surrendered, and the 
way was open into Austria. 

38. But first, by a sudden and rapid movement, Bonaparte overran the 
States of the Church. He had received orders from the Directory to 
overthrow the papal government ; but either feeling or policy led him to 
disregard his instructions, and sign the Peace of Tolentino, by which a 
third part of the dominions of the Pope were ceded to France, beside a 
contribution of 15,000,000 francs. During less than a year in Italy, 
Bonaparte had conquered Piedmont and Lombardy, destroyed or cap- 
tured four Austrian armies, detached the kings of Sardinia and Naples, 
the dukes of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany from the Coalition, laid 
Venice and Genoa under heavy contribution, and added to the French 
dominion Avignon and the Venaissin, Nice and Savoy, and the terri- 
tories of Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna. The spoils of war had not 
only supported its expense, but had enriched both officers and -soldiers, 
and enabled their general to remit six millions of dollars to France. 

39. Leaving Italy, he now led his army through the narrow defiles of 
the Tyrolese Alps into the Austrian territories. The archduke Charles, 
one of the greatest generals of the time, awaited him in Friuli, but was 
defeated in a series of sharp engagements and driven beyond the Save. 
Bonaparte advanced within a few days' march of Vienna, when he con- 

M. H.— 24. 



370 MODERN HISTORY. 

sented to the proposal of the court for a suspension of hostilities. Mean- 
while the Venetians had risen against the French, upon a false report 
of the defeat of Bonaparte in the Tyrol. Four hundred sick soldiers in 
hospital at Verona, as well as many others, were massacred. Bonaparte 
instantly declared war against the Venetian Eepublic, and sent a force 
to occupy its arsenal and forts. He then demanded the overthrow of the 
aristocratic government, the arrest and trial of the principal magistrates, 
the release of all political prisoners, and a total suppression of the fleet 
and army. The French party prevailed. The Council of Ten abdicated 
its sovereignty and acknowledged that of the people. A riot which broke 
out in the city served as a pretext for the introduction of French troops, 
which seized the fleet and with its aid conquered the Ionian Isles for 
France. 

40. A strong party in the French Directory desired a continuance of 
the war. Bonaparte, on the contrary, was strenuous in favor of peace. 
He was intrusted with the whole conduct of the negotiations with Aus- 
tria, and, Oct. 17, 1797, signed the peace of Campo Formio, so called from 
the ruined castle near Udine where it was concluded. In this treaty, 
Francis II. deserted the interests of the Empire, and acted only as sov- 
ereign of Hungary, Bohemia, and Austria. He promised to withdraw the 
imperial troops from the fortresses on the Rhine, and in case the Diet 
refused peace on these terms, to contribute only his contingent as arch- 
duke of Austria. The Austrian Netherlands were ceded to France, and 
their former sovereign received in exchange the whole Venetian territory, 
ceding a tract on its western border to the Cisalpine Eepublic, which had 
lately been formed of Milan, Modena, Ferrara, Bologna, and Eomagna, 
with all their dependencies, and which the emperor by this treaty form- 
ally acknowledged. The republic of Venice, which thus disappeared from 
the family of states, was the oldest government in Europe, having lasted, 
from its foundation to its fall, 1345 years. On the other side of the 
peninsula, Genoa and some surrounding territories were formed into a 
Ligurian Republic. 

41. Although Bonaparte had spared the Pope, the Directory had not 
abandoned its views, and the less, because the States of the Church were 
known to be swarming with malcontents who would readily join in a 
revolution. General Berthier, who had succeeded to the command of the 
army in Italy, marched to Eome, was welcomed by the people as a de- 
liverer and proclaimed the restoration of the Eoman Republic. Pius VI. 
made no resistance, though his personal property was inventoried and 
publicly sold, even to the rings upon his hands. He refused a pension 
from his captors, and was conveyed like a prisoner to a convent at Siena. 
A year later he was carried away to the fortress of Briangon in the high 
Alps, a region of almost perpetual frost, to which French soldiers were 



RE VOL UTION IN SWITZERLAND. 371 

sent for punishment. With a change in the Parisian government, this 
unprovoked severity was discontinued, and the aged pontiiJ' 
was permitted to die in the milder climate of Valence. Rome 
was delivered over to a pillage unsurpassed in former days by Goths, 
Vandals, or Normans. Priestly robes were burned for the gold in their 
embroidery, palaces and churches were ransacked, and their treasures of art 
carried away or destroyed. The people, disappointed in the friends who 
had won them by the pleasant-sounding names of liberty and brother- 
hood, rose against the usurpers, but their efforts were put down with 
slaughter. Berthier, disgusted by the violation of his own engagements 
to respect private property, demanded to be recalled, and Massena, who 
was sent to relieve him, was so notorious a freebooter, that the army 
itself mutinied and refused to receive him. 

42. Switzerland, hitherto neutral, now drew the covetous eyes of the 
Directory, especially as occupying some military roads from France into 
northern Italy. In the Pays de Vaud, where the French language and 
ideas were most prevalent, revolutionary doctrines had made great prog- 
ress, and several fruitless insurrections against the assumed sovereignty 
of Berne, had already occurred. Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs 
to the Directory, discovered a pretext for interference in some old treaties 
of Charles IX. and his brother, by which France guaranteed the inde- 
pendence of the Vaudois. A French force from Italy advanced without 
serious resistance into Switzerland, and proclaimed at Lausanne the free- 
dom of the Pays de Vaud. The Forest Cantons made brave and obstinate 
resistance, and in several battles inflicted heavy loss upon the invaders; 
but at length they were overpowered by superior numbers, and a terrible 
massacre was the punishment of their efforts. The ancient confederation 
gave way to the "Helvetic Republic, one and indivisible," which by a 
treaty of peace and alliance, became the humble vassal of the French, 
and secured to them two military roads — one into southern Germany, and 
one over the Simplon into Italy. 

43. Thus ended, so far as the European continent was concerned, the 
first war of the French Revolution. France had begun to surround her- 
self with a cluster of republics constituted after her own model, and had 
renewed with Spain and Austria — the nations most firmly devoted to 
ancient principles of government — the cordial alliances formed by those 
powers with a sovereign whom the revolution had destroyed. The Treaty 
of San Ildefonso (Aug., 1796) was based upon the Family Compact of 1761. 
It placed the resources of Spain at the disposal of France, and especially 
engaged the former power in the war against England. Godoy became 
a pensioner of the Directory, and through the ascendency of this insolent 
and rapacious courtier, France acquired a sovereign control of Spanish 
affairs. Portugal was withdrawn by Spanish influence from the Coalition. 



372 MODERN HISTORY. 

England alone remained at war, and an invasion of the British Isles was 
planned by the Directory, to be commanded by Bonaparte. It was re- 
solved, however, to substitute the conquest of Egypt for that of England, 
thus securing a base of operations either against the British Empire in 
India or for intervention in the affairs of Turkey, A French conquest 
of Egypt had indeed been proposed as early as the reign of Louis XIV., 
and again in 1781, when Turkey seemed likely to fall under the attacks 
of Catherine II., and France desired to share in the spoils. 

44. In May, 1798, the forces of the Egyptian Expedition — an army 
of nearly 40,000 men, convoyed by a fleet, and accompanied by a scien- 
tific commission of artists and savants — was gathered in the harbor of 
Toulon. Beside Bonaparte, who was in chief command, many other gen- 
erals yet to attain high distinction — Berthier, Kleber, Murat, Junot, 
Desaix, Davoust, Lannes, and others — were included in the corps. A 
first object was the capture of Malta, still, after nearly 300 years, held 
by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. Last of the military orders 
which had sprung from the Crusades, the Knights had long outlived the 
valiant spirit of their predecessors; their Grand Master, unworthy heir 
of La Valette (Book III., § 212), was in secret correspondence with the 
French. The defense was merely nominal, and upon the surrender, ships, 
cannon, and stores, with the treasures of the churches, fell into the hands 
of the victors. 

45. Leaving a strong garrison in Malta, Bonaparte sailed for Egypt, 
where finding the Mamelukes unprepared, he easily took possession of 
Alexandria and pursued his march toward Cairo. In the great plain of 
the Pyramids opposite that city, an army of 30,000 Mamelukes and Arabs 

was drawn up to receive him ; and the furious combat 
which followed, was among the most remarkable of his 
battles. The desperate valor of the soldiers of fate gave way at last 
before the resolute spirit of Bonaparte which animated all his men. The 
next day the French took possession of Cairo. The English admiral Nel- 
son, who had vainly sought to encounter the French fleet on its way to 
Egypt, now came up with it at its moorings in the Bay of Aboukir. 
The battle of the Nile, Aug. 1 and 2, resulted in a decisive victory of 
the English, and an almost total destruction or capture of the French 
vessels. The consequences of this disaster were far more important than 
the cutting off" of Bonaparte's retreat. In Europe it awakened fresh hopes 
among the enemies and unwilling subjects of the Directory. The Sultan, 
who was not deceived by the assurances of friendly intentions, and was 
naturally incensed that France, the earliest ally of his dynasty, should 
be watching to partake his spoils, sent magnificent gifts to Nelson and 
hastened to make a treaty with Eussia, hitherto his bitterest enemy. 

46. A second coalition was formed, consisting of Eussia, Turkey, Great 



WARS OF THE DIRECTORY. 373 

Britain, Austria, and the Two Sicilies. Ferdinand IV. of the latter king- 
dom, without awaiting the signing of the treaties, marched 40,000 men 
into the States of the Church, in three columns, of which the central 
one, led by General Mack, moved directly upon Rome. The French 
evacuated the city, leaving a garrison in the Castle of St. 

Nov 1798 

Angelo ; and the Neapolitan king was welcomed with accla- 
mations. Mack was defeated, however, with great loss in several battles, 
the French reoccupied Rome, and King Ferdinand was not only pursued 
into his own territories, but compelled to embark upon the English fleet 
for Palermo. The French advanced upon Naples, which for several days 
was defended only by lazzaroni and peasants. This irregular force was 
won over to the French cause by a miracle. The blood of St. Januarius, 
which is still preserved in a vial as the most precious possession of the 
Neapolitans, had refused to liquefy at the departure of the king ; but a 
prince who favored the French having threatened to kill the archbishop 
in case of further delay, the miracle was duly performed in favor of the 
General Championnet. The people were satisfied; monarchy was abol- 
ished, and the Parthenopean Republic was proclaimed. 

47. In March, 1799, the Directory declared war against Austria and 
Tuscany. Massena was first in the field and gained several advantages, 
but the archduke Charles defeated Jourdan — who had assumed for his 
command the name of " Army of the Danube " — and by the two battles 
of Ostrach and Stockach, drove him even to the French side of the 
Rhine. The armies in Italy had been ordered to cooperate by advancing 
through the Engadine, but their dearly bought captures of Martinsbriick 
and Miinsterthal were rendered useless by Jourdan's retreat. A congress 
of diplomats at Rastadt was abruptly terminated by the 

recall of the imperial minister and the announcement that 
the emperor annulled all previous proceedings. The French ministers 
were assassinated as they were quitting the town — an outrage upon the 
laws of civilized nations, which was only too clearly chargeable upon the 
imperial court. 

48. In Italy, meanwhile, Gauthier had overrun Tuscany, and the 
grand-duke had retired to Venice. The main French army under 
Scherer was repulsed after several days' obstinate and continuous fight- 
ing at Verona, and still more severely defeated at Magnano. In less 
than a fortnight Scherer lost half his army and was succeeded by Moreau. 
The Russian general Suwarof now assumed command of the allied forces, 
defeated Moreau at Cassano and entered Milan. Moreau would doubtless 
have been crushed by overwhelming numbers had not the Aulic Council 
at Vienna, with its usual dignified dullness, interfered for his relief. 
Suwarof was ordered to besiege Mantua, Peschiera, and other places 
which were deemed essential to the preservation of what he had already 



374 MODERN HISTORY. 

gained; and Moreau, with consummate skill, effected his retreat to Coni, 
where he strongly posted himself in communication with Genoa and with 
France. Macdonald now marched from Naples with his victorious army, 
which was joined at Florence by that of Gauthier, and might have placed 
the French in northern Italy upon an equal footing with the allies, had 
he united at once with Moreau. Desiring, however, to make an inde- 
pendent display of his ability, he marched to meet Suwarof near the 

Trebia, and suffered in a three days' battle one of the most 
A. D. 1799. ' -' 

disastrous overthrows ever experienced by an officer of the 

Republic. All the conquests of Bonaparte were lost. The allies entered 
Turin, and occupied Pignerol, Susa, and other strong points, while the 
Cossacks even penetrated through the mountains into Dauphin^. Jou- 
bert, arriving to supersede Moreau, was defeated and slain at Novi; by 
another disaster Tortona was lost to the French, and the Cisalpine Re- 
public submitted to Francis II. 

49. About the same time a fresh Russian army under Korsakoff ar- 
rived in Switzerland, whither Suwarof proceeded in order to cooperate 
with it. But before his arrival Korsakoff had been attacked and routed 
by Massena, while another French army, led, by Soult, defeated the Aus- 
trians under Hotze. The defeated Russians took refuge in Zurich, where, 
on the 26th of September, a terrible massacre was perpetrated by the 
French. Among the victims was the philosopher Lavater, shot and 
dangerously, if not mortally wounded, by a French officer who had lately 
been his guest. Suwarof, meanwhile, was advancing from Italy by the 
St. Gothard, when he found himself surrounded by the French, and for 
the first time learned the disaster which had befallen Korsakoff He was 
defeated in the attempt to cut his way through Massena's lines, and was 
compelled to retreat into the Grison territory, whence with the rem^ 
nants of the two armies he returned to Russia. 

50. A formidable demonstration of the allies in southern Italy mean-, 
while effected a counter-revolution, and Ferdinand IV. returned to his 
throne. A combined force of Russians, Turks, and Neapolitans, then 
marched upon Rome, and that city capitulated, Sept. 27. A descent of 
the allies upon the Batavian Republic was less successful ; and the Czar, 
disgusted by a series of failures, abandoned the Coalition. 

Meanwhile, Bonaparte, cut off from France by the destruction of his 
fleet, had fixed himself the more firmly in Egypt, conciliating the people 
by professing a belief in their prophet, and contenting his army by in- 
troducing into Cairo all the luxuries and amusements of Paris. The 
learned men pursued their researches among the palaces and tombs of 
the Pharaohs, while the soldiers found their diversion in French news^ 
papers printed in the camp, as well as in cafes, lyceums, and gaming- 
tables. The active mind of the general struck out a new and extraor- 



BONAPARTE'S RETURN FROM EGYPT. 375 

dinary plan — to conquer Syria and Asia Minor, capture Constantinople, 
attack Austria in the rear, and thus march to Paris. With 12,000 men 
and his best generals he left Egypt in February, 1799. Gaza was taken 
at the first assault; Jaffa resisted and was punished by a general massa- 
cre. At Acre his progress was staid by 1,000 Turks and fewer than 300 
English marines under Sir Sidney Smith. They withstood a siege of 
sixty days, and the plague breaking out, Bonaparte was compelled to re- 
tire with a loss of one-third of his army. During his absence from 
Egypt, Desaix had advanced to the Cataracts of the Nile, the farthest 
station of the Eoman legions. A Turkish army which arrived shortly 
after the retreat from Syria, was wholly destroyed at Aboukir, by one of 
the most brilliant and complete of Napoleon's victories. 

51. Learning the French disasters in Italy, and the exhausted state 
of the government at home, Bonaparte sailed for France, ^^ 

accompanied only by five generals who were devoted to his 
interests. The universal dissatisfaction felt with the existing state of 
affairs opened a way to his ambition, and with the Abbe Sieyes, the most 
active member of the new Directory, he planned a virtual overthrow of 
the Republic. The Council of Five Hundred was dispersed by military 
force ; and a minority of its members, reassembling, voted to abolish the 
Directory and intrust the executive power 'to three Consuls — Bonaparte, 
Sieyes, and Roger Ducos. A committee of fifty was chosen equally from 
the two legislative bodies, to propose changes in the constitution. The 
"Constitution of the Year VIII" overthrew popular sovereignty by de- 
stroying municipal governments, and committing to the Consuls the sole 
right of originating laws. The Senate of eighty members was chosen for 
life by the Consuls, the Tribunate of one hundred and the legislature of 
three hundred members for a limited period by the Senate, from a body 
called Notables of France, which was elected only at third remove* by 
the people. The second and third Consuls were merely counselors, all 
real power and responsibility being vested in the first. Thus, under the 
name of a Republic, France was again an autocracy. 

IiE:C.A.:F>ITTJIj-A.TIOIsr. 
By overthrow of Danton and the Hebertists, Robespierre becomes absolute; restores 
worship of the Supreme Being, but increases the slaughter of the guillotine. His fall and 
execution end the Reign of Terror. Dissolution of the Jacobin Club ; massacres of "Red 
Republicans " in the south of France ; starvation in Paris. In the campaign of 1794, France 
conquers the Austrian Netherlands, and the Prussian provinces west of the Rhine ; makes 
Holland a dependency, by the Treaty of Basle detaches Prussia from the Coalition; is 
victorious in Italy, but defeated upon the sea. Death of Louis XVII., and peace with 



*The whole mass of citizens voted for " Notables of the Communes ;" these elected one- 
tenth of their own number as " Notables of the Departments," of whom one-tenth were 
likewise chosen as "Notables of France." 



376 MODERN HISTORY. 

Spain. End of the Convention ; establishment of the Directory, Council of Ancients and 
the Five Hundred. Revival of prosperity at home and aggressions abroad. First Italian 
campaign of Bonaparte; conquest of Piedmont and Lombardy, departure of five Italian 
sovereigns from the Coalition. Mantua taken by destruction of four Austrian armies; 
Papal states despoiled by Peace of Tolentino. Invasion of Carinthia and Styria, overthrow 
of Venice, whose territories are ceded to Austria in exchange for the Netherlands ; Peace 
of Campo Formio. Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics dependent upon France. Pillage 
of Rome and overthrow of the papal government. The Swiss Confederation gives way 
to the Helvetic Republic one and indivisible. Spain under Godoy becomes subservient 
to France. Bonaparte sails for Egypt, captures and garrisons Malta, occupies Alexandria, 
gains Battle of the Pyramids and takes Cairo ; loses his fleet in Battle of the Nile ; at- 
tempts the conquest of Syria, fails, defeats the Turks at Aboukir, leaves Kleber in com- 
mand and returns to France. New Coalition against the French Republic. Revolution 
in Naples, Parthenopean Republic proclaimed. Defeat of Jourdan in Germany and of 
Sch6rer in Italy ; close of Congress at Rastadt. Suwarof defeats Macdonald on the Trebia 
and Joubert at Novi. Defeat of the allies in Switzerland, of Suwarof in the pass of St. 
Gothard. Overthrow of the Parthenopean and Roman Republics. Failure of the allies in 
Holland ; the Czar deserts the Coalition. Bonaparte overthrows the Directory and becomes 
First Consul. 

The Consulate and the Empire. 

52. Bonaparte, being intrusted with almost absolute power, dismissed 
bis provisional colleagues, and appointed in their places Cambaceres and 
Lebrun, men distinguished not more by talents and acquirements than 
by pliability of character. The First Consul established a court at the 
Tuileries, and his great administrative talents soon restored confidence. 
Forced loans were abolished; thousands of non-juring priests were released 
from prison ; the churches were opened and the observance of the Sab- 
bath restored. Strongly desirous of peace, the First Consul addressed 
conciliatory letters to the sovereigns of England and Austria ; but both 
powers refused to treat except upon the restoration of the Bourbons. 
War being renewed, Bonaparte himself undertook the campaign in Italy, 
where only Genoa and the Riviera now remained to the French. For- 
cing a passage across the Grand St. Bernard — most difficult and danger- 
ous of the Alpine routes — he descended into Piedmont in the rear of 
the Austrian lines, and being joined by columns which had crossed Monts 
Cenis and St. Gothard, moved swiftly upon Milan. That city surrendered 
without opposition ; but, on the other side, Genoa, which had withstood a 
two months' siege by the British fleet, capitulated three days later. 

The Austrian general Melas, finding his communications severed by the 

sudden and decisive movements of the French, gave battle at Marengo. 

The fighting was long and obstinate, but at length Bona- 

June, 1800. & to & ; & 

parte was victorious. Melas, a veteran of eighty years, lost 
his presence of mind, and by the convention of Alessandria abandoned 
twelve great fortresses, including those of Milan, Turin, and Genoa, with 
all northern Italy as far as the Mincio to the French. The Cisalpine 
Republic was restored, and after a brilliant campaign of five weeks^ 



BONAPARTE FIRST CONSUL. 377 

Bonaparte returned to Paris more powerful and secure of popular favor 
than ever. 

53. The campaign of Moreau in Germany was almost equally success- 
ful. The Austrians by a series of defeats, were driven from Wirtemberg 
and Bavaria, and the French had occupied Munich, when news of the 
agreement between Bonaparte and Melas led to a cessation of hostilities. 
Efforts toward a permanent and general peace were, however, unavailing, 
and late in November the war was renewed. The archduke John of 
Austria, attempting to approach Munich through the forest of Hohen- 
linden, was fiercely attacked by Moreau, and sustained a ruinous defeat; 
15,000 imperialists were either killed, wounded, or prisoners, while a 
hundred cannon remained in the hands of the victors. The archduke 
Charles, whose inclination for peace had occasioned his removal from 
command, was now reinstated ; and among his first acts was the arrange- 
ment of a truce which was shortly followed by the Peace 

•' •' Feb., 1801. 

of Luneville. Austria recognized the independence of the 
Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine Republics, and added to the 
latter the duchy of Modena. By a subsequent treaty with Spain, Tus- 
cany was erected into a kingdom of Ej;ruria and conferred upon a son- 
in-law of Charles IV., while France, by this concession in Italy, bought 
back the vast territory of Louisiana in North America. 

54. England, still fiercely active in the war, had conquered Malta in 
September, 1800, and resolved to wrest Egypt from the French. Kleber 
had been assassinated by a Turk, on the same day that his former com- 
rade, Desaix, expired on the battle-field of Marengo. His successor, 
Menou, was defeated by the British general Abercrombie in the battle 
of Canopus, and was at length compelled to surrender 
Alexandria, and consent to the transportation of his army 

on English vessels to France. Separate treaties of peace were made by 
the French government with the kingdom of Naples, with Portugal, and 
with Turkey. The Coalition was already weakened by the defection of 
Paul I. of Russia and his reassertion of the Armed Neutrality of 1780. 
The offensive conduct of both English and French officers in seizing and 
searching neutral vessels, had offended the northern nations of Europe as 
well as the United States of America, whose commerce with Great Britain 
was already lucrative and extensive. The Czar, who had constituted him- 
self the Grand Master of the Knights of St. John, was moreover incensed 
by the English retention of Malta ; and in December, 1800, he entered 
into a Quadruple Alliance of Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia to 
maintain the rights of neutrals. 

55. Denmark was the only sufferer by the new Coalition. Admiral 
Nelson, now Baron Nelson of the Nile, passed the Sound and defeated 
the Danish fleet before Copenhagen, notwithstanding its brave and reso- 



378 MODERN HISTORY. 

lute resistance. The Swedish port of Carlscrona was similarly threatened, 
when the assassination of Paul I. suddenly changed the balance of affairs. 
His successor, Alexander I., agreed with England upon a new maritime 
code, to which the other northern powers acceded. In October, 1801, 
Russia made treaties of peace and alliance with Spain and France. At 
last a change of ministry in England favored peace, and after long ne- 
gotiations the Treaty of Amiens was signed by the com- 
missioners of that power with those of France, Spain, and 
the Batavian Eepublic. England restored all her conquests except Ceylon 
and Trinidad ; and evacuated all ports and islands in the Mediterranean. 
Malta was guaranteed by all the European powers to the Knights of St. 
John. Egypt again submitted to the Turkish dominion. The Ionian 
Islands were recognized as an independent republic, under the joint 
protection of Turkey and Eussia. The results of these negotiations added 
immensely to the fame of Bonaparte, and in August, 1802, he was elected 
First Consul for life. 

66. The power thus established was used for the promotion of enlight- 
enment and social order, long interrupted by the storms of revolution. A 
commission of the ablest lawyers was intrusted with the preparation of a 
civil code — the first since St. Louis — evolving a clear and equitable 
system of laws from the perplexing mass of local customs and traditions.* 
Great public works were vigorously carried on — among others, a mag- 
nificent military road across the Simplon from France into Italy. Every 
department of public and private industry received an impulse from the 
energetic genius of Bonaparte, while institutions of learning were the 
especial objects of his munificence. By his Concordat with Pope Pius 
VII., the rites of the Eoman Church were reestablished as the religion 
of the state, though equal freedom was guaranteed to Protestant worship. 
All former sees were suppressed ; ten new archbishoprics and fifty bishop- 
rics were created, the incumbents of which were to be appointed by the 
First Consul. By an Act of Amnesty 150,000 emigrants were permitted 
to return, and such of their confiscated estates as still remained in the 
possession of the government, were restored to them. 

57. The French colony of St. Domingo had formed itself into a negro 
republic, with Toussaint I'Ouverture, once a slave, at its head. A force 
was now sent for its reduction under General Leclerc, a brother-in-law 
of Bonaparte. After several months' desperate fighting, Toussaint was 
captured and conveyed to a dungeon in France ; but his followers, aided 



* Voltaire, in the previous century, had remarked that a traveler through France 
changed laws oftener than he changed horses, and that an advocate might be profoundly- 
learned in one city and an ignoramus in the next. Roman laws, provincial customs, 
and local usages were endlessly modified by royal edicts, ordonnances, and arr&ts of 
parliaments, making at least 300 distinct and often conflicting systems. 



BONAPARTE MASTER OF GERMANY. 379 

by the ravages of yellow fever, which destroyed more than two-thirds of 
the invaders, held out until a renewal of the war between France and 
England brought a fleet of the latter to their assistance. The French 
were expelled, and the independence of the republic, under its ancient 
name of Hayti, was proclaimed. 

58. The execution of the Treaty of Luneville laid the Empire at the 
feet of Bonaparte. Of all the free imperial cities, only six remained. In 
the process of indemnifying temporal princes out of the territories of the 
Church, two of the ecclesiastical electorates disappeared, and the third was 
transferred with the primacy to Ratisbon. The number of electors was 
more than made good by the elevation of one Catholic and three Prot- 
estant princes to that dignity. The archbishopric of Salzburg was made 
an electorate and conferred upon the emperor's brother, Ferdinand, in 
exchange for his grand-duchy of Tuscany. In defiance of promises, 
Bonaparte annexed to France all that part of Piedmont which had not 
been absorbed into the Cisalpine Republic, with the duchies of Parma, 
Piacenza, and Guastalla, the canton of Valais, and the cities of Geneva 
and Basle, Nineteen Swiss cantons, under the Act of Mediation, resumed 
a federal government. The Batavian Republic received a new constitu- 
tion corresponding nearly to the Consulate in France, the Grand Pension- 
ary enjoying even greater authority than had been conferred upon the 
stadtholders. 

59. The Peace of Amiens was not of long duration. England violated 
the terms of the treaty by refusing to quit Malta, and by maintaining an 
army in Egypt more than a year after its evacuation by the French. 
These and other provocations had long indicated a rupture, when George 
III. suddenly ordered the seizure of all French vessels in English harbors, 
and followed this act by a declaration of war. Bonaparte retaliated by 
the arrest of all British travelers in France, and a French army imme- 
diately took possession of the electorate of Hanover. The First Consul 
hastened to sell Louisiana to the United States with a view both to aug- 
ment his resources in the war, and to keep that distant possession from 
falling into English hands.* Spain and Portugal purchased the privilege 
of neutrality with enormous subsidies. Great preparations were made by 
Bonaparte for an invasion of England, a vast army was assembled on the 
coast, and a fleet of transports was distributed in the various ports from 
the Seine to the Texel. 

60. The popularity of the First Consul was only increased by a nefari- 
ous plot for his assassination, formed by royalist refugees in London and 
believed by many to have the sanction of the British government. The 



* Congress agreed to pay $11,250,000 and to assume the debts of the French government 
to American citizens, to an amount not exceeding $3,750,000. 



380 MODERN HISTORY. 

Count of Artois boasted that he maintained sixty assassins in Paris. The 
brave and able general, Moreau, though he had cause of complaint 
against Bonaparte, refused to take part in the conspiracy. He was tried, 
nevertheless, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, which Bonaparte 
commuted to exile in America. Eleven of the chief conspirators were 
put to death. The provocation was great, but it could not excuse the 
murder of the Duke of Enghien, a member of the House of Bourbon, 
who was seized on neutral territory near the French frontier, brought 
by order of Bonaparte to the castle of Vincennes, and shot after a 
mere mockery of trial for complicity in the plot. 

61. The chief result of the conspiracy was the more speedy transfor- 
mation of the Consulate into the Empire. The country was insecure, so 
long as one man's death involved the overthrow of the government. By 
decree of the Senate, ratified by the Legislative Chamber, Napoleon 
Bonaparte was declared Emperor of the French, and the throne was made 
hereditary in his family. Cambaceres became Arch Chancellor, Lebrun 
Arch Treasurer, Prince Joseph Bonaparte Grand Elector, and Prince 
Louis Constable. Eighteen of Napoleon's most illustrious generals were 
named Marshals of the Empire. Pope Pius VII. made the journey to 

Paris, in order to bless the coronation of the new Caesar, 
who had fixed the seat of his universal monarchy on the 
Seine instead of the Tiber. It was, in truth, a second, though brief re- 
vival of the Western Empire, against which the obsolete pretensions of 
the Hapsburgs availed no more than had those of the Byzantine Caesars 
against the first Prankish emperor.* The Cisalpine Eepublic was trans- 
formed into the kingdom of Italy; Napoleon received its crown in the 
Cathedral of Milan, May, 1805, and appointed his step-son, Eugene Beau- 
harnais, to act as his viceroy. The Ligurian Eepublic was annexed to 
France. 

62. A third Coalition against France was now concerted by the reso- 
lute energy of William Pitt. The Czar entered heartily into the scheme. 
Austria acceded in August, 1805. Prussia claimed to be neutral, and 
ultimately became the chief victim of the war. Hostilities began in 
September, when General Mack, with an Austrian army of 80,000, ad- 
vanced upon Munich. Napoleon, abandoning the invasion of England 
(§ 59), rapidly moved the forces which he had gathered for that enter- 
prise, from the Channel to the Rhine, and, contrary to the expectation 
of the Austrians, undertook in person the German campaign. By a series 
of brilliant maneuvers, he gained the rear of his opponent at Ulm, cut- 



* Napoleon constantly maintained the parallel between himself and Charlemagne, by 
assiiming the iron crown of the Lombards at Milan, by conferring upon his son the title 
King of Rome, and, in annexing the papal states to his dominion, by "revoking the do- 
nations of his predecessors, the Prankish emperors." 



AUSTERLITZ AND TRAFALGAR. 381 

ting him off both from Vienna and from his Russian allies. Mack was 
compelled to surrender the 30,000 men who remained with 

,..,,,,,., . T ^.,, , T . Oct., 1805. 

mm, with ail their colors, magazines, and artillery. A divis- 
ion of nearly 20,000 which had escaped from Ulm before the capitula- 
tion, was surrounded and captured at Nordlingen. The French army 
pushed forward and entered Vienna, Nov. 13. Frederic William III. of 
Prussia was now forced or persuaded by Alexander I. to join the Coali- 
tion. During a visit of the Czar at Berlin, the two sovereigns, at the 
tomb of Frederic the Great, swore eternal friendship for each other 
and enmity to Napoleon. Yet a month had hardly elapsed when the 
king tore the treaty he had signed, and sent to congratulate the French 
conqueror upon his victory at Austerlitz. Napoleon coldly replied, 
"This compliment was intended for another, but Fortune has changed 
the address." 

63. The archduke Charles, commanding in Italy, heard of Mack's crit- 
ical 2)osition and hastened to his relief, but arrived too late. Napoleon, 
crossing the Danube, gained one of his greatest victories over the Austro- 
Russian armies at Austerlitz in Moravia. Ten thousand of his enemies 
lay dead upon the field, while 120 cannon and 20,000 prisoners remained 
in his hands. The allies were still superior in numbers; for beside the 
80,000 men of the archdukes Charles and John, the unworn levies of the 
Hungarian barons were approaching ; but the defeated sovereigns gave up 
the game in despair, and the Czar began his homeward march. By the 
Peace of Presburg, the Hapsburgs renounced not only their last foot-hold 
in Italy — Venice being annexed to the kingdom of Napoleon — but the 
most ancient patrimony of their house, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, which 
were added to the dominion of the elector, now king, of Bavaria. The 
royal titles of the electors of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, allies of the 
French, were recognized by the treaty. By a disastrous campaign of 
only two months, Austria had lost three millions of subjects and a rev- 
enue of nearly 14,000,000 florins. 

64. The marvelous success of Napoleon on land was balanced by the 
naval battle off Cape Trafalgar, in which Nelson destroyed the French 
and Spanish fleets, and secured to England the undisputed dominion of 
the seas. But this victory was dearly bought with the life of the great 
admiral. A no less serious check to the prosecution of the war was the 
death of Mr. Pitt in January, 1806. He had been the soul of the war- 
policy of Great Britain, and the elevation of his rival, Mr. Fox, to the 
ministry was followed by negotiations for peace. But Fox died a few 
months later, and the war went on. Prussia was forced to take an active 
part in hostilities, by the dictate of Napoleon, who required Frederic Wil- 
liam to occupy the German territories of George III., and to close all 
Prussian ports against English vessels. 



382 MODERN HISTORY. 

65. The kingdom of Naples having violated its neutrality, was invaded 
by the French army under Massena, just as the Russian and English 
troops were withdrawn in consequence of the battle of Austerlitz. King 
Ferdinand fled to Sicily ; but his queen,* with a spirit worthy of her 
empress-mother, remained at Naples and raised an army of lazzaroni and 
brigands which she reinforced by convicts from the jails. The better 
class of Neapolitans, however, hailed the French as deliverers from this 
disorderly and dangerous rabble, and Massena was able to enter the 
capital without resistance. Joseph Bonaparte, who had accompanied the 
army, was proclaimed King of the Two Sicilies, though in a certain de- 
pendence upon the imperial crown of France. His army 

^ ^' was defeated at Maida by the English general Stuart, and 

a general rising of the peasantry incited by the agents of Queen Caro- 
line, still further threatened the new dominion; but Massena, having 
captured Gaeta, put down the insurrection and restored order. 

66. Proceeding to the organization of his vast dominions, Napoleon 
endowed his sisters with Italian principalities and his brothers with king- 
doms (see § 72). His favorite generals were rewarded by the investiture 
of newly created "fiefs of the Empire;" Berthier became Prince of Neu- 
chatel ; Talleyrand of Benevento ; Bernadotte of Ponte Corvo. The most 
decisive act in his foreign policy was the overthrow of the Roman Em- 
pire, 1,836 years from its establishment by Caesar Augustus, and 1,006 
from its revival under Charlemagne. Sixteen German princes, including 
the kings of Bavaria and Wirtemberg, the grand dukes of Baden and 
Hesse Darmstadt, and the Primate, declared themselves separated from 
the Empire and formed the Confederation of the Rhine in strict alliance 
with France. The French embassador at Ratisbon thereupon notified the 

Diet that his master, having accepted the protectorate of 
the Confederation, " no longer recognized the existence of 
the Empire." Francis II., the one hundred and twentieth of the Caesars, 
hastened to resign his shadowy dignity. In a declaration on Aug. 6th, 
he stated that, finding it impossible to fulfill the obligations which he had 
assumed with the imperial crown, he considered the bonds which attached 
him to the Germanic body as dissolved, released its members from their 
allegiance, and retired to the government of his hereditary dominions. 
He had already assumed the title still borne by his house — Hereditary 
Emperor of Austria. . 

67. The accession of so numerous and powerful a clientage was of im- 
mense importance to Napoleon, for it placed at his immediate disposal an 
army of 70,000 men — a number which by the enlargement of the Confed- 



* Maria Caroline, queen of Naples, was a sister of the emperors Joseph II and Leopold 
II., and of the unfortunate queen Marie Antoinette of Prance. 



NAPOLEON AT BERLIN. 383 

eration was afterward increased to 120,000. The Confederates had kept 
their movements secret from the king of Prussia, though his brother-in- 
law, tlie Prince of Orange, was thereby made a vassal of Murat, the new 
grand-duke of Berg. At the same time it became known that Napoleon 
was proposing to restore Hanover to the king of England. This province 
had been forced upon Frederic William in order to plunge him into a 
war with Great Britain, and had been regarded aa the badge of his hu- 
miliation ; that it should now be wrested from him to suit the further 
convenience of the conqueror, was a mark of contempt too obvious to be 
endured. A strong war-party arose at the court of Berlin, in which the 
queen was the chief mover, but which included the leading statesmen 
and generals. Unhappily, Prussia had forfeited the confidence of all 
Europe for the sake of peace with France, and had to brave the entire 
force of Napoleon with no other immediate aid than that of the elector 
of Saxony. 

68. Most of the Prussian generals were old men ; their leader, the Duke 
of Brunswick, had won his spurs in the Seven Years' War, as comrade 
in arms of Frederic the Great. Napoleon began the campaign with his 
customary energy, and surprised the duke by the same maneuver which 
he had already practiced upon the Austrians, Melas at Marengo, and 
Mack at Ulm. While the Prussian general vainly thought to find the 
French forces dispersed in Franconia, they were turning his left wing 
and cutting him off" from communication with the Russians. Bernadotte 
gained a victory at Schleitz and Lannes at Saalfeld over detached corps 
of the Prussians, but it was not until a large French force was marching 
upon Leipzig directly in his rear, that the duke perceived the true con- 
dition of affairs. He then attempted a retreat, accompanied by the king, 
the Prince of Orange, and many of the most distinguished generals, leav- 
ing' Prince Hohenlohe with part of the army at Jena, 

where he was defeated by Napoleon in person. On the 
same day the retreating army was defeated still more signally at Auer- 
stadt by Marshal Davoust. A panic seized the troops; 14,000 surrend- 
ered at Erfurt to Murat and Ney, and in the north the strong and well 
provisioned fortresses of Stettin, Custrin, even Magdeburg with a gar- 
rison of 20,000 men, were given up to inferior numbers of French. 
Blucher was overtaken at Lubec and surrendered himself with his 
entire division of 20,000 men. 

69. The elector of Saxony hastened to desert his ally and make peace 
with Napoleon, from whom he accepted the title of King and a place in 
the Rhenish Confederation. The French emperor entered Berlin as a 
conqueror, less than a year from the day when he similarly occupied 
Vienna. The sword and insignia of Frederic the Great were sent as 
trophies to Paris. The Duke of Brunswick, fatally wounded at Auer- 



384 MODERN HISTORY. 

stadt, wrote to the conqueror begging mercy for his subjects. He was 
answered with bitter reproaches. During Iiis flight from his capital he 
died in the arms of his son, who swore to avenge him. 

70. From the royal palace at Berlin, Napoleon issued his famous Decree 
declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, confiscating all English 

merchandise, and prohibiting all commerce and correspond- 

Nov., 1806. } f b f 

ence with that country. The court at London responded 
by an Order in Council, declaring the blockade of all ports in Europe 
from which the British flag was excluded, and claiming the right to 
seize and search all vessels bound for such ports. The " Milan Decree " 
of Napoleon (Dee. 17, 1807) retaliated by declaring all vessels submitting 
to the English regulations to be lawful prizes. All these and several 
subsequent decrees were in pursuance of the Continental System by 
which Napoleon hoped to ruin the commerce of England and thus strike 
a mortal blow at the prosperity of his chief enemy. The paralyzing 
effects of his policy were, however, most severely felt by the continental 
states; and it is a singular fact that in spite of the decrees, contracts for 
the clothing of French soldiers had actually to be made in England, the 
Hanse towns being unable to execute them. 

71. The Prussian Poles were easily roused by French emissaries to 
rebel against their late masters, but the patriot Kosciusko, who had ac- 
cepted the protection of the Czar and felt that his countrymen had 
nothing to gain by a change of tyrants, disavowed and discouraged the 
enterprise. The Russian armies appeared on the field in November, 1806, 
and inflicted great losses upon the French, though no decisive victory 
was gained by either side until February. After a few weeks in winter- 
quarters, both armies resumed operations, and one of the most tremen- 
dous of Napoleon's battles was fought at Eylau, Feb. 8. The field re- 
mained to the French, but so terrible was their loss of men, that Na- 

poleon, falling back on the Vistula, made propositions for 
peace. It was refused by the king of Prussia, who was 
reassured by a new convention with Russia and Great Britain, and a 
subsidy of $5,000,000 from the latter. The French were, however, vic- 
torious at Friedland, May 14, and the surrender of Dantzic on the 24th 
of the same month, restored to active service 30,000 of their troops who 
had been engaged in its siege. Konigsberg fell into their hands, and the 
Czar was now the one to offer terms of peace. 

72. The two emperors met on a raft moored in the Niemen at Tilsit, 
and their conference came to a more speedy conclusion than is customary 
with diplomatic dealings. The Czar seems to have conceived a sudden 
and romantic admiration for Napoleon, not unlike that of his predecessor, 
Peter III., for the military genius of Frederic the Great. He assured 
the French emperor that he fully shared his dislike for England, and 



THE PEACE OF TILSIT. 385 

was ready to concert measures for diminishing her power ; whereupon 
Napoleon declared that, if that were the case, peace was already made. 
Alexander recognized the three brothers of the French emperor — Joseph 
as king of the Two Sicilies, Louis of Holland, and Jerome of a new 
kingdom of Westphalia which was formed of the spoils of Prussia and 
Brunswick. Prussian Poland, under the name of Grand-duchy of War- 
saw, was ceded to the king of Saxony. It had been proposed in the 
French cabinet to blot out Prussia from the map of Europe ; at the in- 
tercession of the Czar, Frederic William was permitted to retain his crown 
and somewhat more than half his dominions. 

The details of the scheme by which the emperors of the East and the 
West divided the world between them can not here be recorded. Russia 
was to have the Turkish dominion, except Constantinople, with whatever 
more she could conquer on the side of Asia; and was to become the head 
of a new League in northern Europe which aimed to reduce the mari- 
time supremacy of Great Britain. A Bonaparte was to become king of 
Spain and Portugal. The trade of the Mediterranean was limited to the 
two contracting powers with their dependents. The general result of the 
northern war and the Peace of Tilsit was to make Napoleon more abso- 
lutely than ever the master of Europe. Russia, the only power which 
could cope with him on land, was changed, for a time, from a foe into 
an ally. 

73. England and Sweden were still at war with France. Denmark, 
though hitherto neutral, was forced into the war by the extraordinary 
action of the British government in sending a fleet to bombard Copen- 
hagen. The town, after three days' cannonade, was forced to surrender 
with the entire Danish fleet, artillery, and naval stores. It was two 
months after this high-handed violation of her peace and neutrality, that 
England declared war against Denmark. The Danish West 
Indies were the immediate sufferers, their colonies of St. •. • 

Thomas and St. Croix falling at once into the hands of the English. 
The Czar's offer of mediation being rejected, Russia and Austria entered 
with France into a league against Great Britain, which thus became in 
her turn the object of a Coalition embracing all Europe except Sweden 
and Turkey. All the ports of Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Germany, Hol- 
land, France, Italy, and Dalmatia were closed to the commerce of Eng- 
land, and her trade with Hamburg was conducted by way of Constan- 
tinople. The details of the war between Sweden and Russia need not 
be related. It was virtually closed by the forced abdication of Gustavus 
IV., and the accession of his uncle, Charles XIII., who soon made peace 
with the allied powers. Finland, with the Aland Isles and part of West 
Bothnia, was ceded to Russia. 

M. H.— 25. 



386 MODERN HISTORY. 



As First Consul, Bonaparte restores order and security at Paris. Gains a great victory 
at Marengo, reconquers Italy, restores the Cisalpine Republic and becomes its president; 
while Moreau in Germany wins the battle of Hohenlinden. By Peace of Lunevilie with 
Austria, four republics are recognized, the kingdom of Etruria established, Louisiana 
regained by France. England, still at war, wrests Malta and Egypt from the French; 
Naples, Portugal, and Turkey make peace with France. The Czar proclaims armed neu- 
trality ; forms a coalition of northern powers to maintain it. Nelson defeats the Danes 
before Copenhagen and threatens the Swedes. Murder of Paul I. of Russia; Alexander 
makes peace with England. Peace of Amiens. Concordat with Pius VII. restores Roman- 
ism as the state-religion of France. Captivity of Toussaint I'Ouverture ; independence of 
Hayti established with English aid. Terms of the Peace being violated, Napoleon prepares 
for invasion of England ; sells Louisiana to United States ; retaliates plots against his life 
by execution of the Duke of Enghien ; assumes an imperial crown ; in campaign against 
Austria forces the capitulation of Mack at Ulm ; defeats the Austro-Russian army at Aus- 
terlitz, and dictates the Peace of Presburg. Nelson gains a great naval victory at Trafal- 
gar. The French conquer Naples. Francis of Lorraine abdicates his title as Emperor of 
the Romans. Confederate princes place themselves under Napoleon's protection. Defeat 
of Prussian armies at Jena and Auerstadt; surrender of Stettin, Custrin, and Magdeburg. 
Napoleon occupies Berlin, whence he issues a Decree enforcing his Continental System 
of commercial hostility to England. Grand-duchy of "Warsaw formed from Prussian Po- 
land. Napoleon victorious at Eylau and Friedland; receives surrender of Dantzic and 
Konigsberg. Peace of Tilsit concluded by Napoleon and the Czar. Bombardment of 
Copenhagen by the English, forces Denmark into the war by which she loses her West 
Indian possessions. 

The Peninsular War. 

74. In southern Europe, Napoleon's continental blockade was completed 
by the subjugation of Portugal, the old and steadfast commercial ally of 
Great Britain. It was accomplished by General Junot with an army of 
30,000 men. The insane queen, Maria I., and the Prince Eegent, her son, 
sailed to Brazil, accompanied by most of the rank and wealth of the king- 
dom ; and the new empire of the Bragancas was established at Rio 
Janeiro, Jan., 1808. A few weeks later the Pope's temporal power was 
overthrown by the occupation of Rome by French troops. General Mi- 
ollis was directed to assume the temporary government of the States of 
the Church. Pius VII. responded by a brief of excommunication against 
Napoleon ; but this harmless manifesto was only followed by the annex- 
ation of the richest provinces of the Church to the kingdom of Italy. 
(See note, p. 380.) 

75. Spain was the next victim. A violent dissension existed between 
Prince Ferdinand, the heir of that kingdom, on one side, and his father, 
mother, and the unworthy favorite Godoy, on the other. This quarrel 
was made the occasion of ruin to all. Under various pretenses the north- 
ern provinces of Spain were occupied by a French army of 100,000 men. 
The king, having in vain attempted to reach the coast and embark for 
his American dominions, abdicated in favor of his son, who assumed the 



THE BONAPABTES IN SPAIN. 387 

title of Ferdinand VII. and was welcomed to Madrid by the joyful ac- 
clamations of the people. Charles IV., however, was no sooner relieved 
from immediate danger than he regretted the loss of his crown, and be- 
sought the aid of Napoleon to regain it. The whole royal family were 
drawn by various motives to Bayonne, where, after a personal interview 
with their conqueror, both father and son resigned their sovereign rights 
to their "dearly beloved friend and ally, the Emperor of the French." 
Ferdinand had previously refused the kingdom of Etruria as the price 
of his inheritance. He was imprisoned with his brother Carlos in the 
castle of Valencai. His father sold Spain and the Indies for the castle 
of Chambord and a yearly pension of 7,500,000 francs. 

76. The crown of Spain was bestowed upon Joseph Bonaparte, who re- 
signed that of the Two Sicilies to his brother-in-law, Murat. . ^ .„„„ 

° A. D. 1808. 

The Spanish people, thus bartered away like a flock of 
sheep, were filled with indignation. Though a formal assent to the acces- 
sion of Joseph was extorted from the Council of Castile, Juntas in oppo- 
sition to his government were formed in the principal towns ; and that 
of Seville declared war upon Napoleon, in the name of Ferdinand VII. 
The Peninsular War began with the seizure of six French war-vessels 
in the harbor of Cadiz, and a disastrous defeat of Marshal Moncey in 
his advance upon Valencia. The Spaniards were subsequently defeated 
at Medina del Eio Seco, but more than retrieved that loss by the vic- 
tory of Baylen in Andalusia. General Dupont and 20,000 French be- 
came prisoners of war. The heroic defense of Saragossa equally proved 
the Spanish spirit. Though but slightly fortified, the city sustained a 
two months' siege and many desperate assaults. The French forces, 
fearfully reduced by their hardships, were at length compelled to retreat 
without their guns. 

77. Portugal followed the Spanish example and organized an insurrec- 
tion. The British government sent Sir Arthur Wellesley — afterward 
Duke of Wellington — with an army to her aid. In the battle of Vim- 
eira, Junot was decisively defeated, and by the Convention of Cintra 
barely -obtained permission to evacuate the country with his surviving 
troops. A Russian squadron in the Tagus was surrendered about the 
same time, and the English took possession of Lisbon. In order to con- 
centrate his forces in the south. Napoleon now drew closer his alliance 
with the Czar in a congress at Erfurt, where, beside the two emperors, 
a crowd of inferior sovereigns were in attendance. Alexander consented 
to all the changes in Italy and the Spanish peninsula, in return for Na- 
poleon's agreement to his annexation of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Fin- 
land. A joint request for peace was addressed to the king of Great 
Britain, but was refused on the ground that the Spanish nation was not 
recognized as a party to the transactions at Erfurt. 



388 MODERN HISTORY. 

78. In November, 1808, Napoleon put himself at the head of his armies 
in Spain, and a series of brilliant victories cleared his way to the capital, 
which he entered Dec. 4. By an imperial decree he abolished the Inqui- 
sition, reduced the number of convents to one-third, and annulled all 
feudal rights and provincial barriers. Sir John Moore, at the head of 
the British forces, commenced a most difficult retreat into Galicia ; and 
Napoleon, being at the same time recalled into Germany, left the pursuit 
to Soult. The marshal only overtook the British at Corunna, where in 
spite of his superior numbers, he sustained a severe defeat. But Moore 
was struck by a cannon-ball in the very moment of his victory ; and his 
followers having buried him " at dead of night," hastily embarked for 
England. Galicia submitted to the French ; but these had been so dis- 
abled by their losses as to remain comparatively inactive for several 
months. 

79. Austria, always restive under the humiliating conditions of the 
Peace of Presburg, had been silently mustering her forces until their 
numbers were more than double those of Napoleon. England promised 
aid to the amount of four millions sterling. The moment when the best 
troops of Napoleon were absorbed in the Spanish campaign seemed fa- 
vorable for the attempt, but Francis little appreciated his adversary's 
power of swift and decisive action. Learning at Paris, April 13, of the 

invasion of Bavaria by the archduke Charles, Napoleon pro- 
ceeded at once to Stuttgardt and Carlsruhe, organized the 
forces of Wirtemberg and Baden, and by the 18th had fixed his head- 
quarters at Ingolstadt. By five battles fought in as many successive 
days, he forced the Austrians to draw off their shattered columns toward 
Bohemia, leaving the road to Vienna open to his advance. That city 
capitulated. May 12. 

80. At the first outbreak of the war, the Tyrolese had risen against 
their new masters, the Bavarians, and had either killed or imprisoned 
8,000 French soldiers between Innsbriick and Brixen. The Bavarians 
were driven from the Tyrol, except the fortress of Kufstein on their own 
border, which was besieged. The advance of Marshal LefSvre turned the 
scale. He defeated the Austrians at Morgel and captured Schwatz and 
Innsbruck. Even after the Austrian troops were withdrawn, the brave 
and loyal Tyrolese maintained the conflict until the innermost recesses 
of their mountains had been ransacked by the French troops. Their 
leader, Andrew Hofer, was at length taken, tried by court-martial and 
shot at Mantua, Feb., 1810. 

81. The efforts of the Austrians on the side of Poland were equally 
unsuccessful. In Italy the archduke John was effectually opposed by the 
Viceroy Eugene Beauharnais ; his defeat on the Piave was followed by 
the loss of Gortz and Laybach, and being pursued even into Hungary 



AUSTRIAN MARRIAGE OF NAPOLEON. 389 

he suffered another overthrow near Eaab. The archduke Charles in com- 
mand of the main army, had meanwhile taken up his position on the 
Marchfield near Vienna, where the fortunes of Austria and Germany 
had more than once before been decided. Here a two days' 

*' May, 1809. 

battle was fought with great loss on both sides and no de- 
cisive victory on either; but Napoleon was at length compelled to order 
a retreat. The battles are usually named from the two villages, Aspern 
and Essling, near which they occurred. A few weeks later the decisive 
battle of Wagram resulted in victory to the French. The archduke 
Charles retired into Moravia and was again defeated at Znaym, July 11. 

82. The terms of the Peace of Schonbrunn which followed, were even 
more humiliating to Austria, after all her efforts and sacrifices, than those 
of the treaty of Presburg. The countries about the head of the Adriatic, 
under the name of Illyrian Provinces, became members of the French 
Empire. The greater part of Austrian Poland was divided between the 
Czar and the king of Saxony ; Salzburg with its territories was ceded to 
Bavaria. Francis II. renounced his alliance with England, and engaged 
to uphold the Continental System of hostility to her commerce. The 
deposition and imprisonment of Pope Pius VII. had been accomplished 
during the Austrian war. Refusing a liberal endowment and the pos- 
session of the Vatican — where he might reign as the spiritual head of 
Catholic Christendom without the distraction of worldly interests — the 
Pope shut himself up in the Quirinal with his Swiss Guards; but his 
palace was surrounded at midnight by the French soldiery, and he was 
conveyed as a prisoner first to Grenoble and finally to Fontainebleau. 
Rome was declared the second city of the Empire. 

83. Shortly after the Peace of Schonbrunn, Napoleon resolved upon 
the dissolution of his marriage with Josephine, the faithful and beloved 
companion of his rising fortunes, and the formation of a new alliance 
with one of the ancient dynasties of Europe. The empress gave her un- 
willing consent to what was pronounced a state necessity, and the divorce 
was ratified by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities at Paris. Napoleon 
then demanded from the Austrian emperor the hand of his daughter, 
Maria Louisa. However averse he may have been to the match, Francis 
dared not refuse; the marriage was celebrated at Vienna, March 11, and 
at Paris April 2, 1810. It was perhaps the turning point in the career 
of Napoleon — the moment when his star reached its zenith and began 
to decline. The man who by mere force of genius had raised himself 
from a penniless charity student at Brienne to be master of all the 
crowned heads in Europe, had nothing to gain by connection with a 
family which, now at least, had nothing but antiquity to recommend it; 
while by the people of France he was regarded as having abjured the 
principle on which his greatness rested. 



390 MODERN HISTORY. 

84. The just and liberal policy of King Louis of Holland, especially 
his resistance to the Continental System in favor of the commercial in- 
terests of his people — bitterly displeased his brother, who sent an army 
to occupy the country. Louis abdicated and retired into Austria. Hol- 
land, with the Hanse Towns and an important district on the North Sea, 
was annexed to France. The electorate of Hanover was already added to 
the kingdom of Westphalia, and the Valais in Switzerland was incorpo- 
rated- with France in order to secure the road over the Simplon in the 
undisturbed possession of that power. 

85. The Peninsular War was still in progress. Saragossa surrendered 
to the French, Feb., 1809, after a resistance unsurpassed in heroism even 
by that of the Numantines against the Romans. Monks and even women 
had taken part in the defense ; and 40,000 dead bodies lying in the streets 
bore silent witness to the courage which had yielded only to necessity. 
The great battle of Talavera resulted, after an obstinate and long con- 
tinued struggle, in the defeat of the French by the combined forces of 
British, Spaniards, and Portuguese. Wellington, however, was compelled 
to retire even north of the Tagus, while his allies were repeatedly worsted 
by the French. Gerona, the bulwark of Catalonia, was reduced by fam- 
ine after six months' siege and many assaults. Foreseeing a concentration 
of all Napoleon's forces in the peninsula, Wellington proceeded to fortify 
himself in the famous lines of Torres Vedras, where by defending Lisbon 
to the last he secured at once the free entrance of supplies and an un- 
obstructed retreat in case of need. The three lines were made impregna- 
ble with forts, batteries, and redoubts, while the surrounding country was 
stripped of all that could afford subsistence to an enemy. 

86. Napoleon, meanwhile, once more at peace with all the rest of the 
continent, had collected from his subject nations an army of more than 
300,000 men for the recovery of Portugal, and the reestablishment of his 
power in the peninsula. Massena opened the campaign by the siege and 
capture of Ciudad Rodrigo, soon followed by that of Almeida, a frontier 
fortress of great strength. Wellington retired within his lines, and Mas- 
sena placed his army in winter-quarters at Santarem. In the spring of 
1811 the British besieged Almeida and Badajoz, and defeated Massena at 
Fuentes de Onor. A still more disastrous defeat was suffered by Soult 
at Albuera; but his object was nevertheless attained, for learning that 
he was to be reinforced, Wellington abandoned the siege of Badajoz. 
Already in the preceding year, King Joseph had captured Cordova, Sev- 
ille, Granada, and Malaga, and the Spanish government had taken refuge 
in Cadiz, which was closely invested by the French. 

87. Wellington opened the campaign of 1812 by the reduction of the 
two strong fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. Then penetrating 
to the interior of Spain he gained a great victory at Salamanca. The 



THE INVASION OF RUSSIA. 391 

French were forced to evacuate New Castile and Andalusia and to raise 
the siege of Cadiz with the abandonment of all their artillery. Madrid 
was occupied by the English, but was soon abandoned. The national 
pride ot the Spaniards, which sustained them against the power of Na- 
poleon, made them almost equally jealous of their English allies, and 
seriously abated their success. 

88. Eussia was now the only continental power which could resist Na- 
poleon, and Russia had many causes of complaint — her commerce ruined 
by the system of blockades, her peace threatened by the aggrandizement 
of the duchy of Warsaw, and her sovereign insulted by the annexation 
of Oldenburg, a possession of the Romanoffs, to the French empire. The 
threatened establishment of a Frenqh maritime arsenal at Lubec, the con- 
tinued occupation of the Prussian fortresses and concentration of French 
troops between the Oder and the Vistula, together with the attempt to 
combine Denmark, Sweden, and the duchy of Warsaw in a Northern 
Confederation under Napoleon's protection — all indicated a design to 
violate the treaty of Tilsit as soon as it should suit the convenience of 
the French emperor to dispense with it. The Czar prepared for resist- 
ance by placing an army of 90,000 men upon his frontiers; at the same 
time excluding or limiting the introduction of French merchandise, while 
he admitted products of the British colonies. He closed a 

^ May, 1812. 

three years war with the Turks by the treaty of Bucharest, 
in which the Porte ceded Bessarabia, Ismail and Kilia, one-third of Mol- 
davia, and the fortresses of Chotzim and Bender. 

89. War with Napoleon was hastened by the influence of Sweden. 
Charles XIII. having no son, the four Estates of that kingdom had, in 
1810, elected Charles John Bernadotte (§ 66) to be crown-prince and 
ultimately sovereign. The choice had been made in the hope of gaining 
the good-will of Napoleon ; but Bernadotte's sincere disapproval of the 
Continental System, and the admission of English goods into Pomerania 
soon led to hostilities between Sweden and France. Swedish ships in 
German harbors were seized, and their crews sent in irons to Antwerp. 
Davoust, commanding the French in northern Germany, occupied Pom- 
erania, imprisoned the Swedish civil officers at Hamburg, and filled their 
places with French. Bernadotte, ruling Sweden during the illness of his 
adoptive father, appealed for aid to the Czar. It was granted, and the 
war. which followed was on a grander scale than any that had preceded 
it. Austria and Prussia allied themselves with Napoleon ; Jlussia and 
Sweden with Great Britain. 

90. On the 29th of May, Napoleon left Dresden — where he had met 
the emperor Francis and a throng of German princes, and had displayed 
his magnificence by a series of gorgeous entertainments, while he com- 
pleted his preparations for the campaign. On the frontier of Russia he 



392 _ MODERN HISTORY. 

first declared war against the Czar. His army of nearly half a million 
of men crossed the Niemen in five columns, followed by a train of j.,200 
cannon. Napoleon himself with half his force sought to gain the water- 
shed between the Dwina and Dnieper, whence by a decisive battle he 
might command the road either to St. Petersburg or Moscow. His move- 
ments were delayed by a terrible storm which, sweeping over Lithuania, 
impeded the march of King Jerome and Prince Eugene. In the hurri- 
cane, inundations, and the excessive cold which followed, many horses 
perished, and the movements of artillery were seriously embarrassed. 

91. The Eussians, retreating before superior forces, burned their mag- 
azines, and the French already suffered for want of food. Smolensk© 
was taken after a furiotis assault which lasted an entire day, but it was 
dearly purchased with the lives of 12,000 men, for it was only a heap of 
smoking ruins. Pursuing the same policy, the Eussians burned and 
abandoned Dorogobourg, Viazma, and Gjatsk. Before reaching Moscow, 
Napoleon found the army of Kutusoff strongly posted at Borodino, and 
by a severe and terrible contest won another costly victory. Of the 
80,000 killed or wounded men who lay upon the field, more than half 
were Eussians ; Kutusoff, with his remaining troops, retreated upon Mos- 
cow. Unable to defend that ancient capital, he passed through its streets 
to the great eastern plain, followed by all the inhabitants who were able 
to remove. The French, following, entered the gates without opposition, 
and Napoleon took up his abode in the Kremlin or fortress. But in the 
night innumerable fires broke out in all parts of the city. Trains had 
been laid from house to house and heaps of combustible materials were 
fired by men left behind for the purpose. For five days the city was an 
ocean of flames. Eeturning to the Kremlin after the conflagration had 
subsided, Napoleon attempted to negotiate with his former partner in the 
treaty of Tilsit.- He had fancied that from that ancient palace of the 
Czars he might again dictate terms to Europe; but the act of the gov- 
ernor had shown the futility of the dream. 

92. Alexander adhered to his former declaration that he would treat 
with no enemy on Eussian soil. A terrible winter was coming on ; and 

_^ vanquished both by frost and flame, Napoleon was com- 
pelled to retreat. The roads were already obstructed by 
snow, and troops of Cossacks were ready to seize stragglers from the main 
body. In one terrible night (Nov. 6-7), thousands of men and nearly all 
the horses perished with cold. The line of retreat was strewn with corpses 
like a continuous battle-field. In crossing the river Beresina, a bridge be- 
came clogged with carriages and men. The Eussian general Witgenstein 
came up and directed a terrible cannonade upon the crowded mass. The 
hideous carnage which followed may be imagined but can not be de- 
scribed. Those were happiest who found a speedy grave beneath the icy 



GERMAN WAB OF LIBERATION. 393 

waters. But a small fragment remained of the grand army which had 
undertaken the conquest of Russia, and that consisted of charred, maimed, 
and shattered specimens of humanity, victims of the most disastrous re- 
treat since that of Xerxes. 

93. Leaving Murat in chief command. Napoleon hastened to Paris, 
where a false report of his death had led to a dangerous insurrection. 
The presence of the emperor restored order, and by extraordinary con- 
scriptions he was soon at the head of nearly half a million of men, but 
the immense destruction of horses in the Russian campaign rendered his 
remarkable victories of 1813 ineffective. As a natural result of his mis- 
fortunes, many of his German allies deserted him. The Confederation of 
the Ehine was dissolved. Frederic William of Prussia allied himself with 
the Czar, and welcomed a Russian army in Berlin. Austria and Saxony 
for a few months maintained an armed neutrality. The people of Ham- 
burg rose against the French garrison, and opened their gates to the 
Russians, their hal-bor to the English. 

94. The campaign of 1813 embraced the whole continent of Europe. 
The left of the French army rested on Hamburg and Lubec, its right on 
Venice and Verona. The main action took place in the northern portion 
of the line and chiefly in the Saxon territory. The first general encounter 
was upon the plain, of Lutzen, rendered famous nearly two hundred years 
before by the victory and death of Gustavus Adolphus. The Russian and 
Prussian monarchs commanded in person ; they were defeated, and the 
Saxon capital remained in the hands of the French. A more decisive 
victory was gained by Napoleon in a two days' battle at Bautzen. Ham- 
burg was retaken by Davoust with a corps of French and Danes. In 
revenge for the expulsion of the garrison, 8,000 houses were destroyed 
and 48,000 people rendered homeless. 

95. Napoleon now consented to a truce of eigiit weeks, to afford time 
for negotiations. A Peace " Congress assembled at Prague; but the allies 
were insincere, and the time was spent in perfecting the Fifth Coalition 
of European powers against Napoleon. England was most active in the 
use of money and influence. Austria gave in her adhesion, increasing 
the allied armies to a marked superiority over their opponents. Napo- 
leon meanwhile concluded a treaty with the Danes. War was renewed 
Aug. 10 ; and in the great battle of Dresden, Napoleon was again victori- 
ous. Throughout the campaign, however, the advantages gained where 
he commanded in person were balanced by the almost uniform defeat of 
his generals. Oudinot lost a battle at Grossbeeren, Macdonald at Katz- 
bach; a French division pursuing the allies after their defeat at Dresden, 
was cut off from the main body and 20,000 men were either killed or 
captured. Ney in his march upon Berlin was defeated by Bernadotte 
with great loss. 



394 MODERN HISTORY. 

96. Bavaria joined the Coalition Oct. 1. Napoleon, outnumbered and 
partly surrounded by the allies — who, reinforced by 60,000 Russians, had 
advanced again into Saxony — resolved to stake all upon a great battle, 
which was fought accordingly at Leipzig, Oct. 16-18. On the first day 
the French had generally the advantage ; but at night Napoleon, con- 
scious of the tremendous odds against him, renewed proposals for peace. 
They were rejected, and after a day's respite the battle recommenced, 
this time with still greater superiority of numbers on the part of the 
allies. The French were driven from their positions, and at night began 
a retreat, which but for the milder season would have been as disastrous 
as that from Moscow. The Bavarians under Wrede tried in vain to in- 
tercept their march, but were routed at Hanau. 

97. The vast empire built up by the genius of Napoleon rapidly fell 
to pieces. French garrisons were expelled from towns on the Elbe, the 
Vistula, the Oder, and the Baltic. Hanover was reoccupied by the king 
of England ; Holland proclaimed the Prince of Orange as sovereign of 
the Netherlands under the name of William I. Jerome Bonaparte aban- 
doned his kingdom of Westphalia, and the sovereigns of Hesse, Olden- 
burg, and Brunswick resumed their hereditary dominions. The Danes 
made a treaty with Great Britain and Sweden, ceding Norway to the 
latter power, and receiving in exchange Swedish Pomerania and the Isle 
of Riigen. They entered the Coalition and accepted a liberal subsidy 
from Great Britain for the maintenance of 10,000 troops. The Austrians 
had meanwhile recovered Illyria, Carinthia, and Dalmatia ; and the open- 
ing of the Tyrol to the allies had driven Eugene beyond the Mincio. 
Murat, believing his brother-in-law irretrievably ruined, accepted the 
promises of the allies and declared war against Napoleon. Eugene was 
offered the crown of Lombardy on similar terms, but he remained faithful 
to his emperor. 

98. In Spain, some of the best French troops having been withdrawn, 
Wellington gained the great battle of Vittoria, which decided the fate 
of the peninsula. Joseph Bonaparte retired into France. Nearly a week 
of severe fighting in the passes of the Pyrenees resulted in the expulsion 
of Soult from the Spanish territory. San Sebastian was taken by storm, 
Pampeluna by siege, and even Bayonne was invested by a force of Eng- 
lish and Portuguese. Napoleon released Ferdinand VII. from his captiv- 
ity of six years, and solemnly recognized his dignity as King of Spain 
and the Indies. The Pope was likewise released from Fontainebleau, 
and resumed his sovereignty over the States of the Church. 

99. In the campaign of 1814, the allies prepared to converge their 
columns from the north, east, and south, upon Paris. Schwartzenberg, 
with the grand army of Austria, crossed the Rhine at Basle ; Blucher, 
with that of Silesia, between Mannheim and Coblentz ; while the Russians 



FIRST ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON. 395 

approached through the Netherlands. Before the end of January nearly 
one-third of France was actually occupied by the allies. In this desper- 
ate condition, the wonderful resources of Napoleon's genius appeared 
more inexhaustible than at the height of his good fortune. Though de- 
feated by Blucher at Brienne, he persevered in assaulting that general 
until by successive victories he drove him back upon Billow's advancing 
columns. Then turning upon Schwartzenberg, he defeated him at Mon- 
tereau so decisively that the Austrian made proposals for a peace. 
Blucher again advanced and gained a victory at Laon. Leaving Mar- 
mont and Mortier to hold him in check, Napoleon attacked Schwartzen- 
berg at Arcis-sur-Aube ; but the battle, though the most fiercely contested 
of the whole campaign, had no decisive result. 

100. Napoleon then determined to get into the rear of the Austrians, 
and carry the war into Germany. Learning his design, the allies re- 
solved to take advantage of it by hastening their march upon Paris. The 
emperor was at St. Dizier when he discovered the snare into which he 
had fallen. Traveling with extraordinary swiftness in advance of his 
army, he arrived at Fontainebleau late at night, only to find that the 
battle which deprived him of a throne had been fought that very day 
on the heights of Montmartre, Belleville, and Eomainville. The empress- 
regent and her son had retired to Rambouillet. Marmont and Mortier 
with the National Guards and 8,000 regular troops had defended the 
capital to the last extremity, until, further efforts proving hopeless, they 
had been authorized by Joseph Bonaparte to agree with Schwartzenberg 
upon terms of capitulation. 

101. The Czar and the king of Prussia entered Paris, March 31, fol- 
lowed by their victorious armies. After a conference with the principal 
officers of the government, they issued a proclamation declaring that they 
would no longer treat with Napoleon Bonaparte nor with any member 
of his family. The next day the Senate pronounced his deposition from 
the throne. Finding armed resistance impossible, Napoleon signed an 
abdication in favor of his son. This was rejected by the allies, who ex- 
ulted in having their great enemy absolutely at their disposal ; and he 
was compelled to follow it by an unconditional surrender of the crowns 
of France and Italy, accepting as a nominal exchange the sovereignty 
of the Island of Elba and a pension of two millions of francs. The war 
in the south was already ended by the victories of the British at Orthez 
and Toulouse. Bordeaux had proclaimed Louis XVIII., and Wellington 
was marching northward with his victorious army. The Count of Artois, 
appointed by his brother Lieutenant-General of the kingdom, signed a 
convention with the allied sovereigns at Paris. On the 20th of April, 
Napoleon took leave of his guard at Fontainebleau, and departed for 
Elba. 



396 MODERN HISTORY. 

102. The allied sovereigns in possession of France proceeded to settle 
its government and boundaries to their own satisfaction. The Czar, to 
his lasting honor, became the guarantee of a liberal constitution ; and it 
was only after signing this document that Louis XVIII., having arrived 
from England, was permitted to make his public entry into Paris. The 
throng of royalists who had returned under the protection of the allied 
armies, received him of course with acclamations, but it was noticed that 
the people in the streets regarded the royal cortege with ominous silence. 
The charter which the king granted to his people was dated in the nine- 
teenth year of his reign! It conceded many invaluable rights — freedom 
of person, security of property, unobstructed exercise of religion, and 
liberty of the press — but its refusal to recognize the eventful history of 
the Republic and the Empire was worse than a silly affectation ; it went 
far to prove, to the great discontent of the people, that the Bourbons 
during their long exile had "learned nothing and forgotten nothing." 

103. By the Peace of Paris, May 30, France was reduced to her limits 
at the beginning of 1792, with a few slight additions; independence was 
restored to Germany; Holland was increased by the annexation of Bel- 
gium, and the Prince of Orange became King of the Netherlands. Upon 
learning of Napoleon's abdication, Eugene Beauharnais surrendered the 
fortresses of northern Italy into the hands of the Austrians. On the 2d 
of October all the European sovereigns assembled either in person or by 
embassadors at Vienna to rearrange the affairs of the continent. But 
there is the less need to record their decisions, as their conferences were 
interrupted by a most unwelcome event. 

104. Napoleon had quitted Elba, Feb. 26, and having landed at Cannes, 
was marching toward Paris, joined every-where by companies of his old 
soldiers, whose idolatrous affection for his person quickly effaced their 
allegiance to Louis. The presence of Napoleon upon a battle-field had 
been estimated by his opponents as equal to an additional force of 40,000 
or even 100,000 men. Never had his personal ascendency been so mani- 
fest as when he stood alone and unarmed in the presence of royal bri- 
gades sent to arrest his progress. Whole battalions passed over to his side 
as soon as officers and men caught sight of his familiar face and figure. 
The Count of Artois fled almost unattended, his whole army serving to 
swell the triumphal escort of the emperor. The king quitted his capital, 

and Napoleon, entering the same evening, Avas reestablished 
March, 1815. ■ ■, r^ ■-, ■ .-,-,. -, , . ^ „ , 

in the luiieries amid the joy and congratulations of all the 

dignitaries of the Empire. Most of the Bourbons took refuge in England, 

but Louis XVIII. resided in Belgium during the "Hundred Days" that 

comprised the brief and eventful second reign of Napoleon. 

105. The emperor sought the approval and support of the liberal party 
by an "Act additional to the Constitutions of the Empire," in which he 



THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 397 

granted even greater securities for popular freedom than had been con- 
ceded by the charter of 1814. Laboring night and day at the organiza- 
tion of his army, he was surrounded on the 1st of June by a magnificent 
array of 367,000 men, including the National Guard. A few weeks more, 
he afterward remarked, would have placed around France " a wall of 
brass which no earthly power would have been able to break through." 
But the Belgian frontier was already threatened by the English and 
Prussian armies under Wellington and Blucher. Marching northward 
with his usual promptitude. Napoleon attempted to divide his enemies — 
himself attacking Blucher, while he ordered Ney to keep the British 
engaged and prevent their rendering aid to their allies. Blucher was in 
fact driven back from Ligny with tremendous loss; but Ney was at the 
same time repulsed from Quatre Bras. 

106. The general and decisive conflict took place at Waterloo on the 
18th of June. The splendid valor of the French was never more signally 
displayed ; all depended upon their capture of the two positions of Hou- 
goumont and la Haye Sainte, before Blucher, who was contesting with 
Grouchy the defile of St. Lambert, could come to the aid of Wellington'. 
English steadfastness won the day. Late in the afternoon the Prussians 
began to arrive ; the imperial Guard, the last reserve of Napoleon, was 
brought into action, surrounded and overpowered by the British. Seeing 
this disaster, the French broke and fled. Napoleon, exclaiming "All is 
lost!" commenced his flight toward Paris. Here he signed a second act 
of abdication,. but proclaimed his son as Emperor of the French. Lafay- 
ette, who for a quarter of a century had held himself aloof from public 
affairs, was now a member of the legislature and insisted on uncondi- 
tional abdication. He was also one of an embassy sent to the allied 
sovereigns to treat for peace. They refused all negotiations until " Bona- 
parte " should be placed in their custody as a guarantee against his ever 
again disturbing the peace of Europe. 

107. On the 6th of July the allies again entered Paris and on the 8th 
Louis XVIII. was reinstated. Napoleon designed to take refuge in the 
United States, but finding it impossible to elude the vigilance of the 
English who blockaded the coast, he resolved to throw himself on their 
generosity. In a letter to the Prince Eegent (afterward George IV.) he 
compared himself to Themistocles seeking the protection of Admetus. 
The " first gentleman of Europe " appears at a disadvantage compared 
with the Molossian chief. The humiliated emperor was not even per-, 
mitted to land in England, but after being kept several weeks on board 
ship, he was conveyed to the prison rock of St. Helena, where he lingered 
out six years of captivity in a noxious climate, and died May 5, 1821. 
Twenty years later a more generous spirit animated the British govern- 
ment. The remains of Napoleon were permitted to be conveyed by a 



398 MOBEEN HISTORY. 

guard of honor to Paris, where they rest under the dome of an institu- 
tion which his munificence had fostered. 

108. The faults and crimes of this remarkable man are too evident to 
need enumeration. He drained the life-blood of France by reckless con- 
scriptions; he overthrew the liberty of the press and of opinion; he in- 
volved his empire in two ruinous wars by a tyrannical commercial policy 
arising from his resentment against England ; he heartlessly pursued his 
own ends at the expense of the life, liberty, and happiness of others — 
both individuals and nations. Yet it may be questioned whether he was 
more selfish, or only more able, than the hereditary sovereigns, into 
whose feebly ceremonious courts his energetic movements struck terror 
and confusion. He found Europe encumbered with lifeless forms, the 
remains of institutions of former ages; his mission seems to have been 
to clear the ground for new and better growths. If his fall was owing 
to his errors, his extraordinary success was not less the natural result 
of profound knowledge, untiring industry, and irresistible will. 

Napoleon was the heir of the Eevolution, but he knew how to avail 
himself of its opportunities without sharing its godless and cruel fanati- 
cism. Nor is it just to charge the twenty years' war in which he was 
the leading actor wholly to his unscrupulous ambition. With the two 
exceptions of the Peninsular and the Eussian war, brought about by his 
Continental System, the remaining conflicts may be more justly attrib- 
uted to the allies, especially to Great Britain, who refused all overtures 
for peace, or violated a treaty as soon as it had been made. It is doubt- 
less true, however, that the Napoleonic style of government could never 
have long coexisted in peace with the old European system, which the 
Eevolution had overthrown and which the four Great Powers were de- 
termined to build up ; war may therefore be charged upon their irrecon- 
cilable differences of character rather than upon any man's will. 

E<EC-A.I=ITTJIi.A.TI01T. 

Enforcement of the Continental System in southern Europe leads to the Peninsular War, 
in which Portugal and finally Spain become dependencies of Napoleon. Empire of Brazil 
is founded by the exiled Bragangas. Dissensions between Charles IV. and his son lead to 
abdication of the Spanish crown, which is conferxed upon Joseph Bonaparte, Murat be- 
coming King of the Two Sicilies. Victories of the Spaniards at Valencia and Baylen ; 
defense of Saragossa. Junot defeated in Portugal ; Lisbon taken by the English. In the 
Congress of Erfurt the Czar confirms his alliance with Napoleon. The latter gains vic- 
tories at Spain and dictates laws at Madrid. Victory and death of Sir John Moore at 
Corunna. Austria begins a war by invading Bavaria ; is many times defeated, but most 
decisively at Eckmuhl, and Vienna is surrendered to Napoleon. Andrew Hofer leads a 
revolt of the Tyrol against Bavaria ; it is subdued by the French. Severe but indecisive 
battles of Aspern and Essling followed by great victory, of Napoleon at Wagram. By Peace 
of Schonbrunn, Austria resigns her Adriatic provinces and her share in the spoils of Po- 
land. Deposition of Pius VII. ; annexation of papal states to the French Empire. Marriage 
of Napoleon with Maria Louisa of Austria. Abdication of King Louis of Holland ; annex- 
ation of that and other territories to France. 



J 



ANGLO- AMERICAN WAB. 399 

Surrender of Saragossa ; victory of Wellington at Talavera ; his fortifications at Torres 
Vedras. Capture of fortresses by Massfina ; defeat of the French at Fuentes de Onor and 
Albuera. In campaign of 1812, WelUngton takes Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz; gains a 
great victory at Salamanca; drives the French from Cadiz. 

Aggressions of France upon Russia, retaliatory edicts of the Czar and resistance of 
Sweden to the Continental System, lead to invasion of Russia by Napoleon. Smolensko 
and other cities burned and abandoned by the Russians. Victory of Napoleon at Boro- 
dino; his occupation of Moscow. It is burned, and the French in retreating are over- 
whelmed with disasters. In campaign of 1813, all Europe forms a Fifth Coalition against 
Napoleon, who is victorious at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden, but his generals suffer many 
reverses and he is finally defeated at Leipzig. Loss of dependencies of the Empire. Vic- 
tory of M'ellington in Spain leads to restoration of Ferdinand VII. In 1814, France be- 
comes the field of war. Able but desperate resistance by the emperor. Capitulation of 
Paris. Napoleon abdicates and retires to Elba. Restoration of Louis XVIII., who grants 
a charter of liberties. Holland and Belgium united under sovereignty of the Prince of 
Orange. Return of Napoleon from Elba; flight of the Bourbons; the Hundred Days' 
reign of Napoleon ; his campaign in Belgium ; final defeat at Waterloo ; second abdication ; 
imprisonment and death on St. Helena. 

War of the United States with England. 

109. Though the absorbing interest of the period just narrated centers 
in the movements of Napoleon, important events had meanwhile occurred 
west of the Atlantic. The United States had long been justly offended 
by the maritime policy of Great Britain, whose officers claimed the right 
to board and search all vessels and impress American seamen into their 
own service, on the plea that no British subject could ever become an 
alien. The tendency of Napoleon's Continental System and of the Eng- 
lish Orders in Council was to annihilate neutral commerce. The retali- 
atory acts of Presidents Jefferson and Madison were doubtless more 
injurious to the United States than to the European powers; but they 
were part of a series of events which led to a declaration of war against 
England in June, 1812. The American coast was then almost unfortified, 
and a navy could scarcely be said to exist; the main action upon the 
sea was therefore carried on by privateers, which, during the two and a 
half years of the war, captured more than 1,500 British merchantmen. 
The details of the conflict must be sought in American history ; we have 
room but for the briefest outline. 

110. Eepeated attempts to persuade or force the Canadas to throw off 
their allegiance to Great Britain were unavailing ; and in August, 1812, 
General Hull's surrender of Detroit threw open the whole territory of 
Michigan to a Canadian and Indian army. During the same summer, 
however, our infant navy had several victorious encounters with English 
war-vessels on equal terms, which went far to disprove the boasted su- 
premacy of Great Britain on the sea. The next year Ogdensburgh was 
taken by the British, but the Americans captured York, the capital of 
Upper Canada, gained the entire control of Lake Ontario, and drove their 
opponents from Niagara River. Still more brilliant was the success of 



400 MODERN HISTORY. 

Commodore Perry on Lake Erie. Creating a squadron from tlie forests 
on its shores, he conquered the English fleet, and obtained the mastery 
of the upper lakes. Following up this victory, General Harrison recov- 
ered all that General Hull had lost, and imposed peace on the Indians 
of the North-west. 

111. In 1814, decisive victories were gained by the Americans at Chip- 
pewa, at Niagara Falls, and at Plattsburg, where battles were fought at 
the same time on land and on the waters of Lake Champlain. All the 
cities of the Atlantic coast were meanwhile blockaded by British vessels. 
A strong force occupied the Chesapeake and levied contributions from 
the towns upon its shores; while General Eoss with 6,000 men march- 
ing upon Washington, burned the Capitol, the President's house and 
other public buildings. An attack upon Baltimore was unsuccessful. 
The last act of the war was the Battle of New Orleans, in which the 
American general Jackson gained a decisive victory. But before it was 
fought, the triumph of the allies in Europe had removed the direct causes 
of the American war ; and soon after the battle, news arrived of a peace 
concluded at Ghent by the commissioners of Great Britain and the 
United States. Happily exempted by distance from taking part in Euro- 
pean strife, the American Eepublic enjoyed thirty years of undisturbed 
tranquillity — a period marked by an unexampled increase of material 
prosperity and advance in civilization. 

112. By the second treaty of Paris, France was reduced to her limits 
in 1790, and was rendered incapable of again disturbing the peace of 
Europe, by the quartering of a foreign army of 150,000 men upon her 
borders. This army was maintained by the conquered people, who were 
also compelled to pay the allies seven hundred millions of francs toward 
their expenses in the war, beside a still larger sum for injuries wrought 
by French troops in other countries. The pictures and statues brought 
from German and Italian cities for the decoration of Paris, were returned 
to their rightful owners. A second Congress at Vienna undertook the 
difficult task of restoring the balance of power so long disturbed by the 
irresistible ascendency of Napoleon. It was indeed impossible to reestab- 
lish boundaries and political relations as they had been before the revo- 
lution; but the sincere desire of the sovereigns for peace, aided by the 
patient ingenuity of the diplomats, resulted in a new order of things 
which lasted with little interruption until 1848. To secure the con- 
tinuance of concord and amity, the Czar persuaded the Austrian and 
Prussian sovereigns to join him in a Holy Alliance, binding themselves 
" to remain united in the bonds of true and indissoluble brotherly love ; 
to govern their subjects as parents; to maintain religion, peace, and 
justice." 

113. Thirty-nine sovereigns and cities, with Austria and Prussia at 



BALANCE OF POWER RESTORED. 401 

their head, formed a German Confederation whose capital was Frankfort 
on the Main. Austria received back her lost provinces and was con- 
firmed in possession of those which she had gained by the treaty of 
Campo Formio. These were erected into a Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, 
while Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Piacenza were secured to younger 
branches of the Hapsburgs. The empress, Maria Louisa, not choosing to 
share the exile of her husband, was endowed with the duchies of Parma, 
Piacenza, and Guastalla. Her son spent most of his short life near the 
imperial court of Vienna, and died in 1832. 

114. Prussia resumed her place among the Five Great Powers, being 
indemnified for her losses by nearly half the Saxon kingdom, the duchies 
of Posen, Cleves, and Berg, and the left bank of the Ehine to the Saar. 
England and Russia emerged from the conflict with a great increase of 
power and fame. The former, indeed, had nearly quadrupled her national 
debt, of which the annual interest, now amounting to $140,000,000, in- 
volved an inconceivable burden of taxation and misery ; but her domin- 
ion of the sea, so far as any European rival was concerned, was estab- 
lished beyond dispute. Russia, on the other hand, by wars with Sweden, 
Turkey, and Persia, had vastly increased her territories on the Baltic, 
the Danube, and the Caspian ; while Poland, reconstituted as a kingdom, 
was now added to the dominions of the Czar. A subsequent Congress at 
Aix-la-Chapelle, in providing for the withdrawal of the 

army of occupation from France, restored that nation to 

her rank among the Five Great Powers. The supremacy of the Five in 

the States System was more distinctly marked than ever, each being 

charged with the duty of maintaining the existing balance by war, if 

diplomacy should fail; while minor powers might indeed protest against 

any disturbance of the equilibrium, but were not required to arm for its 

preservation. 

115. Hereditary monarchy was restored in all countries of any extent 
except Switzerland. That confederacy, by the addition of Geneva, Valais, 
and Neuchatel, now attained its present number of twenty-two Cantons. 
Of the five leading nations only England and France possessed represent- 
ative constitutions ; Russia, Austria, and Prussia were governed by the 
arbitrary will of their sovereigns; and the struggle between absolutism 
and popular rights occasioned a great intellectual ferment throughout 
Europe until it resulted in the revolutions of 1848. In France, Talley- 
rand, the profound and dexterous diplomatist, who had been minister of 
foreign affairs under four governments, was succeeded, Sept., 1815, by the 
Duke of Richelieu, a royalist of the most extreme and uncompromising 
type. The nation seemed to have undergone one of those violent re- 
actions, both religious and political, of which its history affords so many 
examples. In Nismes, Avignon, and Toulouse the sanguinary scenes of 

M. H.— 26. 



402 MODERN HISTORY. , 

the Eevolution were revived in the massacre of Protestants, Republicans, 
and Bonapartists. 

116. The collateral branches of the Bourbons were restored to their 

thrones in Spain and Italy. Ferdinand VII. reestablished the Spanish 

Inquisition and all the suppressed convents. The Spanish colonies in 

America, encouraged partly by the example of the United States, partly 

by the absorption of the mother country in the wars of Napoleon and 

the anarchy which followed his fall, commenced in 1810 a revolution 

which resulted in the independence of Colombia and the 
Dec, 1819. ^ 

Argentine Republic. Chili, Peru, and Bolivia gained their 

independence a few years later.* In Mexico the popular chieftain, 
Iturbide, proclaimed himself Emperor in 1822, but he was dethroned the 
next year, and the Republic of Mexico was established in alliance with 
that of Colombia. The exhausted treasury of Spain was taxed with vain 
attempts to recover these lost provinces ; and the unpaid soldiers, uniting 
with great numbers of discontented citizens, organized a revolution which 
overthrew the Inquisition and the convents, and restored the liberal con- 
stitution of 1812. 

117. The Holy Alliance interfered and required the restoration of ab- 
solute monarchy. The Cortes refusing, Spain was invaded by a French 
army of 100,000 men, commanded by the Duke of Angouleme. The 
Liberals were every- where defeated; the French traversed the peninsula 
to Cadiz, which was taken by assault; and King Ferdinand VII., who 
had been detained in captivity by the Cortes, was reestablished at 
Madrid in 1823. The French generals exerted their influence in favor 
of moderation, but their counsels could not abate the revengeful spirit 
of the king, and despotism in its most odious form was again fastened 
upon Spain. 

118. Portugal, offended by the continued residence of the Regent — 
now King John VI. — in Brazil, revolted in 1820, and established a gov- 
ernment even more liberal than that of the revolutionists in Spain. But 
the king was the next year driven from Brazil by a revolution, and 
leaving his eldest son, Pedro, as Regent of that country, returned to 
Lisbon. His younger son, Miguel, rebelled, both during the life and after 
the death of John, in 1826, and was even declared King by the Cortes ; 
but he was subdued by an English fleet, and Maria da Gloria, daughter 
of Pedro of Brazil, reigned undisturbed from 1834 till 1853. Brazil, in 



* The hero of these revolutions was Simon Bolivar, a Spanish native of Caraccas. While 
pursuing his studies in Europe, he witnessed the two coronations and part of the ex- 
traordinary career of Napoleon. The memoirs of Washington and Franklin excited his 
emulation ; and upon the Sacred Mount at Rome he vowed to become the liberator of his 
country. He failed to unite all South America in one great Federal Republic, and died — 
perhaps by poison — in December, 1830, at the age of 47. 



LIBERALISM IN ITALY, HUNGARY, GERMANY. 403 

1822, constituted itself an independent empire with Pedro I. at its head ; 
and in 1825 it was recognized as such by John VI. 

119. In Italy the arbitrary rule of the Hapsburgs and the Neapolitan 
Bourbons was threatened by several secret political societies, among which 
the most widely extended was that of the Carbonari, numbering half a 
million of members in Italy alone. Encouraged by the Spanish revolu- 
tion of 1820, the Carbonari marched upon Naples, and the king, Ferdi- 
nand IV., without an effort at resistance, conceded all that they asked — 
replaced his ministers by liberals and proclaimed the 

Spanish constitution of 1812. Army, people, court, and 
even the Crown Prince assumed the colors of the Carbonari. In Sicily a 
strong party of counter-revolutionists demanded the independence of 
the island-kingdom. A fierce battle was fought by the two factions, and 
Palermo, for two days in the hands of the mob, was given up to murder 
and pillage. It was retaken by the army of the revolutionary govern- 
ment at Naples; but the next year the Carbonari were put down by 
the intervention of the Holy Alliance and the march of 60,000 Aus- 
trians into the Neapolitan territories. 

120. A similar insurrection in Piedmont compelled King Victor Em- 
manuel I. to abdicate in favor of his brother Charles Felix. In Lom- 
bardy, the severity of the Austrian police prevented any outbreak of the 
malcontents; but many popular leaders were imprisoned, among whom 
Silvio Pellico is best known through his own narrative of his captivity. 
The same discontents which were produced in Italy by the severity of 
the Austrian government, were encouraged elsewhere by its weakness. 
Its treasury was bankrupt, and its debt every year greater, even in time 
of peace. At the same time, in Hungary and Bohemia, a renewed study 
of national antiquities and literature intensified the desire for independ- 
ence. At the crowning of the archduke Ferdinand as King of Hungary 
in 1830, the Diet made a formal demand for the use of the Magyar 
language instead of Latin in its debates, and the exclusive apjjointment 
of Magyars to command Hungarian regiments. The Diet was conse- 
quently dissolved ; when it reassembled in 1832, Louis Kossuth was one 
of its members. 

121. In Germany the revolutionary spirit was kept alive only among 
the youth, and chiefly by students in the universities, whose imagina- 
tions, fired by the new romantic school of poetry, impelled them to great 
deeds for the glory and unity of the Fatherland. A harmless overflow 
of youthful eloquence and enthusiasm upon the third centennial of the 
Eeformation, which happened also to be the anniversary of the last battle 
of Leipzig, attracted the attention of the Prussian and Austrian minis- 
ters, and thence of the Czar, who, the next year, formally denounced the 
German Student-society to the congress of sovereigns at Aix-la-Chapelle. 



404 MODERN HISTORY. 

Kotzebue, a celebrated dramatist and Russian Consul-general in Germany, 
having ridiculed the demonstration through the press, was murdered at 
Mannheim by a student of Jena in 1819. This crime only confirmed the 
belief of the German statesmen in the existence of a dangerous conspir- 
acy ; and at their congress at Carlsbad, they adopted resolutions limiting 
the freedom of the Universities, and appointing a commission for discov- 
ering and punishing the supposed plotters. The commission spent ten 
years in its researches and filled the prisons with students, but failed to 
discover an organization which probably never existed. 

122. A few changes among the European sovereigns may here be 
noted. George III., the aged king of England, had spent the last ten 
years of his long reign in a melancholy state of blindness, deafness, and 
almost continual insanity ; his son, as Prince Regent, being the recog- 
nized head of the government. The latter prince succeeded in 1820 to 
the title of King George IV. Bernadotte, Crown Prince of Sweden by 
adoption, had received, two years earlier, the full sovereignty with the 
name of Charles XIV. Pope Pius VII. ended his troubled and eventful 
reign in 1823, and was succeeded by Leo XII., whose severe rule re- 
pressed for a time the activity of the Carbonari in the States of the 
Church. The next year Louis XVIIL died at Paris, and his brother the 
Count of Artois received the crown of the Bourbons. The royal dignity 
having been so severely shaken by the storms of revolution, the most 
sacred and imposing of its ancient forms were revived in the new coro- 
nation. A drop or two of the holy oil which had served for the conse- 
cration of Clovis, was opportunely discovered at Rheims, and Charles X. 
was seven times anointed with the precious fluid. 

123. Unhappily for the well-meaning but narrow-minded prince, no 
magic could recreate the vanished superstition of his people. Every 
election returned a still larger majority of liberal deputies. The people 
were incensed by restrictions upon the freedom of the press; the army 
was alienated by the dismissal of 160 ofiicers of Napoleon and the dis- 
banding of the National Guard; and finally the appointment in 1829 of 
an ultra-royalist ministry — with Prince Jules de Polignac at its head, 
and for war-minister General Bourmont, who had deserted to the allies 
just before the battle of Waterloo — completed the general discontent. 
Bourmont's brilliant and permanent conquest of Algiers failed to awaken 
enthusiasm. The final stroke of misgovern inent was dealt in the Ordi- 
nances of St. Cloud, which suppressed several liberal journals, limited the 
right of suffrage, and dissolved the new Chamber of Deputies before it 
had met. The force commanded by General Marmont was insuflBcient to 
suppress the riot which ensued. The National Guard reappeared in uni- 
form with the veteran Lafayette at its head. The tricolor replaced the 
white flag of the Bourbons on the Hotel de Ville ; the streets were bar- 



REVOLUTIONS IN FRANCE AND BELGIUM. 405 

ricaded, and citizens at their own windows took an active part in the 
combat. Symptoms of disaffection appeared in the army itself, several 
regiments were removed, and the mob took possession of the Tuileries, 
The king at St. Cloud too late decided to dismiss the unpopular ministry 
and revoke the Ordinances. A municipal commission, organized July 31, 
announced to the royal messenger that the throne had fallen. 

124. The Duke of Orleans — head of the younger branch of the House 
of Bourbon — had lived in retirement since the Eestoration, choosing to 
maintain merely the style of an opulent citizen. His sons — to the great 
scandal of the king — attended the public colleges. These circumstances 
enhanced his popularity ; he was invited by the peers and deputies to 
Paris, and many voices already hailed him as the "Citizen King." For 
a few days Louis Philippe dissembled — accepted at once from the gov- 
ernment at St. Cloud and from that at Paris the title of 

A. D. 1830. 

Lieutenant-General of the kingdom, and received from 
Charles X. his abdication in favor of his grandson the Duke of Bordeaux. 
The Chamber of Deputies, Aug. 3-7, declared the throne vacant by the 
abdication of the Elder Line of the House of Bourbon, and proceeded to 
elect Louis Philippe as "King of the French." The new title indicated 
the fall of absolutism, and the establishment of the opposite principle 
which makes the will of the people the source of power. 

125. Charles X. fled to Eambouillet and thence to Great Britain, 
where the palace of Holyrood in Edinburgh was assigned for his resi- 
dence. Before his arrival the crown of England had again been trans- 
ferred by death, this time to William IV., who succeeded his brother, 
George IV., in June, 1830. Five years earlier the Czar Alexander had 
died, and his younger brother, Nicholas, was now Emperor of all the 
Eussias. 

126. The French Eevolution of 1830 was shortly followed by the in- 
dependence of Belgium. The people of the southern Netherlands had 
never been cordial in their obedience to the House of Orange, nor in 
their union with the Dutch, from whom they differed in religion, lan- 
guage, and customs. A riot broke out in the college at Louvain, and 
the result of the " July Days " in Paris only encouraged a spirit of in- 
surrection in other Belgian cities. The Dutch troops were every-where 
expelled ; a provisional government was established in Brussels ; the 
House of Orange-Nassau was declared to have forfeited its claims upon 

Belgium. The Five Great Powers, by their representatives 

° , . , , n Dec, 1830. 

in London, recognized the independence of the southern 

kingdom and arranged the terms of its separation from Holland. The 

latter retained Luxembourg, but was otherwise confined within its limits 

in 1790. A Belgian Congress at Brussels (June, 1831) adopted a new 

constitution and conferred the crown upon Prince Leopold of Saxe Co- 



406 MODERN HISTORY. 

burg. The siege of Antwerp by a French army compelled the king of 
Holland to withdraw his forces from the Scheldt, leaving the navigation 
of that river open to the Belgians. 

127. Less fortunate was the revolt of the Poles in Nov., 1830. The 
harshness of the grand-duke Constantine, viceroy for his brother the 
Czar, had worn out the patience of the people. They were joined by the 
Polish regiments in the Eussian army; and many princes and magnates 
took part in the rebellion. Prince Adam Czartoryski, a descendant of 
the ancient Lithuanian dukes, was to be king of Poland in case of suc- 
cess ; and to gain the favor of foreign nations it was resolved to establish ' 
a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The details of the heroic 
struggle can not here be related. The overwhelming force of the Czar 
prevailed, and Poland became a mere province of Russia. The university 
of Warsaw was suppressed; the national archives, libraries, and scientific 
collections were removed to St. Petersburg; the soldiers were enrolled in 
Russian regiments. Eighty thousand Poles were in one year exiled to 
the frozen deserts of Siberia ; children were torn from their parents and 
carried away to military colonies. Religious persecution was added to 
the pain of national extinction ; for the Greco-Russian Church was made 
preeminent in the conquered country. 

128. The two years following the French and Belgian revolutions were 
marked by fresh efforts and triumphs of the Liberals in Spain, Italy, and 
Germany, but in no case with any permanent result. Francis I. of the 
Two Sicilies, who had succeeded his father Ferdinand in 1825, died in 1830, 
leaving his throne to his son Ferdinand V. of Naples, but IL of Sicily. 
The crown of Sardinia devolved in 1831 upon Charles Albert, Prince of 
Carignano, and the same year Pope Pius VIII. was succeeded in the chair 
of St. Peter by Gregory XVI. The two sons of the ex-king Louis of 
Holland joined the insurgents in the papal states. The elder of these 
brothers died during the riots at Forli, leaving the younger, Louis Na- 
poleon, to represent — after the death of the Duke of Reichstadt — the 
Bonapartist interests in France. He escaped in disguise from Italy and 
spent the next five years with his mother. Queen Hortense, at her castle 
in Switzerland. Perceiving the unpopularity of Louis Philippe, he in- 
trigued with the French troops at Strasbourg and suddenly appearing 
among them in 1836, announced himself their Emperor ! The rash at- 
tempt only covered him with ridicule. Stripped of his imperial orna- 
ments, he was locked up in the guard-room to await the royal commands. 
Louis Philippe allowed him to depart unmolested for the United States. 
Making a similar descent upon Boulogne, four years later, he was capt- 
ured and imprisoned in the fortress of Ham. 



GREECE UNDER THE TURKS. 407 



Ii.EC.A.:PIT-U-Ij.A.TI03Sr. 

Conflicting maritime interests lead to War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United 
States. American naval victories on the Atlantic and the Lakes. Blockade of the coast. 
Washington burned ; Baltimore attacked ; New Orleans victoriously defended by General 
Jackson. Peace of Ghent. 

Humiliation of France after the campaign of Waterloo. Balance of power secured by 
the Holy Alliance. New German Confederacy takes place of the Empire emd the Con- 
federation of the Rhine. Addition of territories to Austria and Prussia; aggrandizement 
of Russia and Great Britain ; restoration of France. Absolutism of three of the live " Great 
Powers." Reenthronement of the Bourbons in Spain and Italy. Independence of all 
Spanish colonies on the American continent accomplished, A. D. 1810-1821. Insurrections 
in Spain; absolutism restored by intervention of France. Separation of Portugal from 
Brazil. Usurpation by Don Miguel ; accession of IMaria da Gloria. Rule of the Carbonari 
at Naples ended by Austrian interference. Discontent with Austrian supremacy in Italy, 
Hungary, and Bohemia. Liberalism in German universities. Assassination of Kotzebue. 
Severity of the Commission of Inquiry. 

Accession of Charles XIV. in Sweden ; George IV. in England ; Pope Leo XII. ; and 
Charles X. in France. Despotic acts of the latter lead to his dethronement in the Three 
Days' Revolution, 1830 ; Louis Philippe becomes King of the French ; Leopold I. of Bel- 
gium ; Poland a province of Russia. Revolutions of 1830 usually followed by triumph of 
absolutism. Vain attempts of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Strasbourg and Boulogne ; 
his captivity at Ham. 

The Greek Eevolution. 

129. "We have reserved for a more connected narrative the twelve 
years' conflict which resulted in the independence of the Greeks. For 
nearly four hundred years that brave people had borne the yoke of serv- 
itude to a race alien in religion and inferior in civilization to themselves. 
Turkish ofiicials, hardly less violent and rapacious than the highwaymen 
whose robberies they permitted and whose spoils they shared, ruled the 
land. But the Ottoman Empire was apparently tottering to its fall. The 
Turks in Europe numbered scarcely two millions, while their Christian 
subjects of various nationalities exceeded eleven millions. If these had 
been able to combine they might have thrown off" the foreign dominion ; 
but differences of race and language prevented a concentration of their 
forces. Of the four distinct races inhabiting Turkey in Europe, the 
Sclavonians of Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, the Herzegovina, and Montenegro 
were by far the most numerous. The Roumanians of Moldavia and Wal- 
lachia numbered four millions; the Albanians, inhabiting ancient Epirus, 
only a million and a half. It was reserved for the Greeks, the least 
numerous of all, first to achieve their independence. 

130. Zeal for their Church had done much to preserve the separate 
nationality of the Greeks. The Mainotes of the Peloponnesus, and the 
mountaineers of the Thessalian border had never submitted to the Turks, 
but continued to bear arms in their own defense. Beside these, multi- 
tudes of the more adventurous had betaken themselves to a wild sort of 
outlawry, and under the name of Klephts or Robbers, waged a predatory 



408 MODERN HISTORY. 

warfare upon the Turkish villages, easily escaping to their eyries among 
the mountains whenever they were pursued. The close of the eighteenth 
century was marked by a great revival of Hellenic genius. The fires of 
patriotism were rekindled in every Greek heart by increased acquaintance 
with the history of the ancient heroes; and a secret society, called the 
Hetseria, united all Hellenes, however separated by distance, in a resolu- 
tion to strike off the hated yoke of the oppressor. Catherine II. had 
availed herself of the dawn of this enthusiasm in order to further her 
own plans against the Porte ; but when at her call the whole Hellenic 
race had sprung t9 arms for the recovery of their liberty, the crafty em- 
press abandoned them to the vengeance of the Turks, and the sedition 
was quenched in blood. Alexander I., in his zeal for the restoration of 
absolutism, had no sympathy to spare to oppressed members of his own 
Church. The Holy Alliance in its successive congresses at Laybach and 
Verona condemned all revolutionary movements, alike in Greece, Italy, 
and Spain, and uttered the cruel command, " Let the Greek rebels obey 
their lawful sovereign," * The beginning of the struggle was therefore 
left to the unaided valor of the oppressed people. 

131. The first blow was struck by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, leader 
of the Hetseria, who in March, 1821, proclaimed that all the Greeks re- 
nounced their allegiance to the Turks. The people of the peninsula and 
the islands sprang to arms at his call. But the first movements were 
disastrous. The news of the revolt was followed in Constantinople by a 
general massacre of the Greek inhabitants of the capital. The venerable 
patriarch Gregorios, with three bishops and eight priests, was hanged in 
his robes before the gate of the church in which he had just been offici- 
ating. The Sacred Band — a regiment of students who bore upon their 
shields the Spartan motto, "Either this or on this" — lost four hundred 
of its members at the fatal battle of Dragaschan, June 19, 1821. About 
the same time a small number of Klephts withstood an overwhelming 
Turkish force near Thermopylae. All but eighteen at length perceived 
the hopelessness of the contest and retired to their mountains;, but this 
handful stood their ground, killing many times their own number, until 
all were either killed or taken. Several towns in southern Greece were 
besieged and taken by the insurgents, the most important being Tripo- 
litza, the Turkish capital of Morea. 

132. In January, 1822, the first national congress of new Hellas pro- 
claimed at Epidaurus the national independence, and adopted a provis- 



*" As if," says Prof. Felton, "at any moment of the four centuries of their enslavement 
there was a single element of legal sovereignty in the oppressive rule of the Turks; a 
single moment when the Christian victims had not a right to use every means within 
their reach to reclaim the freedom theirs by inheritance and ravished from them by 
overpowering wrong." 



WAR OF GREEK INDEPENDENCE. 409 

ional constitution. Alexander Mavrocordatos was the first president. In 
the following spring Scio became the chief object of the vengeance of 
the Turks. To avenge an insurrection, men, women, and children were 
subjected to indiscriminate massacre. More than 40,000 perished ; thou- 
sands of the most accomplished were carried away to the. slave-markets of 
Smyrna and Constantinople. The grief and indignation of the Greeks soon 
found vent in action ; in an encounter with their fire-ships the author of 
the massacre and 2,000 of his followers were slain. 

The next year was signalized by the gallant attack of Marco Bozzaris 
and his Suliote band upon a Turkish camp. Bozzaris fell, but the fame 
of his valor contributed greatly to awaken sympathy in Europe and 
America. Though governments were still indifferent, and those embraced 
in the Holy Alliance even expelled the wretched Greek fugitives from 
their borders, the people sent supplies of money, arms, and men to aid 
in the combat for freedom. Classical enthusiasm quickened the zeal of 
the educated classes ; and so, at last, the ancient orators achieved against 
the Moslem what they had in vain attempted against the Macedonian 
tyrant. Ffllremost of the Philhellenes was Lord Byron, who resolved to 
devote his fortune and talents to a great cause. His death at Misso- 
longhi, April, 1824, filled all Greece with sorrow. 

133. The Sultan, unable to reduce the Greeks with his own forces, 
called in Mehemet Ali, the almost independent Viceroy of Egypt, whom 
he won to his service by an offer of making Mehemet's step-son, Ibrahim, 
Pacha of the Morea. That peninsula became the scene of a frightful series 
of ravages; men were slaughtered, women and children sent as slaves to 
Egypt. Missolonghi was besieged five months and taken in spite of its 
heroic defense. The next year Athens fell, and hope seemed to expire. 
But changes had meanwhile occurred in several European courts. The 
Holy Alliance had been shaken by the death of Alexander I. ; his brother 
Nicholas was more zealous in protecting his co-religionists, and perhaps 
more ambitious of conquest from the Turks. France and England, 
alarmed by the aggrandizement of the able and ambitious 

Julv 1827 

Mehemet, joined with Russia in a plan for intervention. 
The Sultan refused even to receive their communication, and the three 
powers immediately increased and combined their naval forces in the 
Mediterranean. On the 20th of October the allied fleet encountered 
that of the Turks and Egyptians in the Bay of Navarino, and after a 
severe engagement of four hours, won a decisive victory. 

This timely and unexpected aid revived the spirit of the Greeks. Their 
newly elected president. Capo d'Istrias, was now on a visit to the capitals 
of the three allies, where he was able to negotiate a loan which relieved 
the most urgent necessities of his government. The next year the Czar 
declared war against the Sultan, and his invasion of the provinces on 



410 MODERN HISTORY. 

the Danube forced that sovereign to accept terms of accommodation, and 
by the treaty of Adrianople to acknowledge the independence of the 
Greeks. 

134. To secure the permanency of a deliverance so hardly won, it was 
resolved to give Greece a ruler from one of the reigning families of 
Europe. Among many candidates, the choice fell at last upon Otho, 
second son of the king of Bavaria, who was welcomed at Nauplia, Feb., 
1833, by the joyful acclamations of the people. Two years later the seat 
of government was fixed at Athens. The purpose of the allies had doubt- 
less been to invest Otho with an arbitrary sovereignty ; but in 1843 a 
peaceful revolution resulted in the convoking of a representative assem- 
bly to which the king conceded its just share in the government. In 
1863, the Bavarian dynasty was expelled and Prince George of Denmark 
became King of Hellas. The next year Great Britain abandoned her 
fifty years' protectorate — which had really amounted to a sovereignty — 
of the Ionian Islands, and they were added to the dominion of Greece. 

135. Mehemet Ali had been rewarded for his services in the Greek 
revolution by the sovereignty of Crete. His ambition still unsatisfied, he 
sent his son Ibrahim, in 1831, to attempt the conquest of Syria. The 
rapid progress of the invader alarmed the Sultan Mahmoud, who has- 
tened to ally himself with Russia, and subsequently with England and 
Prance. His forces were defeated, 1839, at Nisibis on the Euphrates, and 
a few days later the Sultan died. His son and successor, Abdul Medjid, 
was but seventeen years of age; and the French government desired to 
place upon the throne the more able and experienced Mehemet, or at 
least to make him the independent sovereign of Syria and Egypt. Eng- 
land united with Russia, Austria, and Prussia to oppose this arrangement. 
The allied forces defeated Ibrahim at Kaleb Medina, and captured Acre 
for the Turks. By the Treaty of London, 1840, Crete and Syria were 
restored to the Porte; and English influence, ably represented by Sir 
Stratford Canning — afterward Lord Stratford de Redcliffe — for many 
years controlled the counsels of the Sultan. 

136. Meanwhile important revolutions were preparing in western 
Europe. Louis Philippe had a difficult if not an impossible part to 
play. Legitimists denounced him as a usurper, Republicans as a tyrant, 
Bonapartists as ruling in defiance of the will of the people. But his 
prudent management, strengthened by close alliances with England, 
Spain, and Portugal, secured several years of peace and prosperity. The 
responsibility of ministers for all the acts of the government, and the 
ultimate supremacy of the people as represented in parliament, were as 
firmly established in France as in England. The attempt of the Duchess 
of Berri to excite rebellions in the western provinces in favor of her son 
rather increased than diminished the popularity of the king. M Theirs, 



CABLISTS AND CHBISTINOS IN SPAIN. 411 

at the head of the ministry, managed to absorb the attention of the 
dangerous classes in the pursuit of glory abroad, by making war against 
the wandering Kabyles who still claimed the interior of Algeria. The 
severest shock that the new dynasty had yet sustained was the death of 
the king's eldest son, the Duke of Orleans. The next heir was less than 
four years old, and the prospect of a long minority in the present un- 
settled state of aflfairs was disastrous. The intervention of the king in 
Spanish aflfairs added the displeasure of foreign courts to the discontent 
of his own people. 

137. Ferdinand VII. had died in 1833, leaving two little daughters, 
the eldest of whom was scarcely three years of age. By a Pragmatic 
Sanction in 1830, he had annulled the law which excluded women from 
the throne of Spain; but during the mental feebleness which attended 
his last days, his brother Don Carlos had either forged or extorted from 
him a revocation of that Sanction, and proceeded, upon Ferdinand's 
death, to assert his own claim to the crown. Spain was thus divided 
between two parties, the Carlists or "serviles," and the Christinos or lib- 
erals, who supported the regency of the queen-mother, Christina of Naples. 
England and France favored the Pragmatic Sanction, while the northern 
powers with the Pope refused to recognize it. The Christinos ultimately 
prevailed, and the young queen, Isabella II., was duly acknowledged, 
Don Carlos, however, maintained for six years a formidable force of ad- 
herents, and in 1837 even attempted the capture of Madrid. He was de- 
feated by the queen's general, Espartero ; and in 1840 the Carlists in the 
Biscayan provinces were wholly suppressed. 

138. The destiny of Spain seemed to hang upon the marriage of the 
queen. Her union with the Count of Montemolin, the son and heir of 
Don Carlos, would have united all claims to the crown and restored 
peace to the country; but France and England opposed the alliance. 
Louis Philippe desired to strengthen his dynasty by a connection with 
that of Spain. He selected for the husband of Isabella, her cousin, the 
half-idiotic Francisco of Assis, while he married his son, the Duke of 
Montpensier, to her sister Maria Louisa, who from her more robust health 
had every prospect of outliving the queen. This deeply laid scheme did 
not however confirm the power of the French king, but rather under- 
mined it, by alienating the confidence of his allies. 

139. The scarcity of the years 1846 and 1847 aggravated the uneasi- 
ness in France. The Liberal party began to make its power felt in re- 
form banquets, at one of which near Paris in 1847, the king's health was 
omitted, but the "sovereignty of the people" was received with shouts 
of applause. Guizot, who had long before succeeded Thiers at the head 
of the ministry, represented high monarchical principles; and Thiers, by 
way of political opposition, encouraged the popular discontent, A grand 



412 MODERN HISTORY. 

reform banquet had been announced for Feb. 22, 1848; and it was ex- 
pected that 100,000 people would be present in the Champs Elysees. 
The government prepared to prevent the meeting by force ; the guns of 
the forts were pointed inward upon the city; and an army of nearly 
60,000 men was massed in the neighborhood. A mob now appeared in 
the streets, composed of those squalid, hideous, half-human inhabitants 
of the Parisian cellars, who are never seen except in times of revolution, 
and then constitute its worst elements. They erected barricades, and 
uttered the cry, terrible in the ears of despots, and unheard for forty- 
four years in France, "Long live the Eejmblic/" 

140. The king and his sons escaped from Paris and found a refuge in 
England. The widowed Duchess of Orleans, leading her little son, the 
heir to the crown, presented herself calm and undaunted before the 
tumultuous assembly of the two Chambers. She reminded the deputies 
of her husband, whom all men had trusted, and promised that her son 
should fulfill the promises which his grandfather had broken. A voice 
from the tribune declared as in the case of Charles X., " It is too late," 

and a Republic was proclaimed. A provisional government 
was formed, consisting of Lamartine, Dupont de I'Eure, 
Arago, Ledru-Eollin, Marie, Carnier-Pages, and Cremieux. The elo- 
quence of Lamartine was exerted with marked effect in the preservation 
of order. The mob, however, took possession of the Tuileries, made a bon- 
fire of the throne, planted " trees of Liberty " in all public places, and 
clamored for a Eed Republic under Ledru-Rollin. But the better class 
of the people, instructed by experience, firmly opposed these irregulari- 
ties ; 100,000 National Guards declared for the provisional government, 
and shouted, "Down with Communism!" Some of the most violent 
Socialists were sentenced to exile or imprisonment. 

141. Among the first and least considerate acts of the provisional gov- 
ernment had been the establishment of national workshops, where all 
who applied found employment and wages. Private manufactures were 
ruined ; for the state, supported by taxation, could easily outbid the 
wages which they were able to pay; and the public workmen, soon num- 
bering 100,000, became a dangerous political institution. The attempt to 
abate this peril by dismissing a great number of men, led to a terrible 
four days' battle in the streets of Paris. General Cavaignac was ap- 
pointed Dictator with unlimited powers; but as soon as order was re- 
stored by a victory of the National Guards, he resigned that office and 
was named President of the Council. For the new Assembly, Louis 
Napoleon Bonaparte — who had escaped in 1846 from his imprisonment 
at Ham — was elected as a member from Paris as well as from four 
provincial departments. The new constitution requiring a President 
chosen for a term of four years, he received an overwhelming majority 



REVOLUTIONS OF 1848. 413 

of votes. He took the prescribed oaths, Dec. 20, 1848, and the Provis- 
ional Government was superseded by the Second French Eepublic. 

142. Before describing the revolutions of 1848 in other countries of 
Europe, we briefly state the changes of sovereigns during the preceding 
twelve years. William IV. died at London, 18S7, and the crown of the 
United Kingdom devolved upon Victoria, daughter of his brother, the 
Duke of Kent. That of Hanover being limited to the male line, de- 
scended to a younger brother, the Duke of Cumberland.* Frederic 
.William III. of Prussia closed his long and humiliating reign in 1840. 

His son, Frederic William IV., summoned a Diet, and made some other 
concessions to the demands of his people. In Sweden the beneficent rule 
of Charles XIV. (Bernadotte) was followed by the accession of his son 
Oscar in 1844. Pope Gregory XVI. died, 1846, and Cardinal Mastai Fer- 
retti, having received the votes of the conclave, assumed the tiara with 
the name of Pius IX. 

143. The " Schleswig-Holstein question " already began to agitate the 
northern countries. If the only son of Christian • VIII. of Denmark 
should die without heirs, the crown of that kingdom would devolve upon 
the dowager-landgravine of Hesse. The two duchies, however, by their 
ancient constitutions, could not be inherited by a woman ; and a strong 
German party claimed them for Duke Christian of Augustenburg, head 
of a collateral branch of the Danish house. Holstein was a member of 
the German Confederation, and its affairs were therefore within the juris- 
diction of the Diet at Frankfort. Schleswig, on the contrary, had be- 
longed, more than eight hundred years, to Denmark, but the desire of 
a great proportion of its people for union with Holstein and admission 
into the Confederacy, awakened a strong interest in Germany. King 
Christian opposed the German party by issuing letters-patent extending 
the Danish law of female succession to his ducal dominions. His death, 
Jan., 1848, was shortly followed by a revolt of the two duchies, aided by 
Prussia and Hanover with the approval of the Frankfort Diet. 

144. The news of the events at Paris set all Europe in a blaze. The 
long smoldering conflict between absolute and popular principles of gov- 
ernment became open and violent. All the races subject to Austria — 
Magyar, Slavonian, and Italian — rose in revolt, and the emperor was 
forced to yield the general demand by dismissing Prince Metternich and 
granting a free press, a national guard, and liberal constitutions to the 
several members of the empire. Similar insurrections in Prussia, Hanover, 
Saxony, Wirtemberg and sfeveral smaller states were met by similar con- 



*This king, Ernest Augustus, was one of the most extreme of absolutists. On his ar- 
rival in Hanover he refused to receive the congratulations of the Chamber of Deputies, 
annulled the representative constitution, and ejected some of the best professors in the 
University of Gfittingen for their liberal opinions. 



414 MODERN HISTORY. 

cessions. King Louis of Bavaria, who in many ways had forfeited the 
confidence of his subjects, resigned the crown to his son Maximilian 11. 
A party in Baden and other states, aided by "free bands" in Switzer- 
land, desired a Republic. Switzerland herself had lately passed through 
a crisis of opposition between the Jesuit or reactionary party and the 
Liberals. Seven Catholic cantons formed a separate League 
■ ■ ■ and appealed to arms, but they were defeated by a Federal 

force under General Dufour; and ultimately the Jesuits were expelled, 
the convents broken up and the "Sonderbund" dissolved. Warned by 
this peril, the Swiss increased the strength of their federal government 
by adopting a new constitution, modeled, with slight variations, upon 
that of the United States. 

145. In Germany the Republican project made little impression. A 
National Parliament at Frankfort, after declaring the "fundamental 
rights of the German people," resolved to reiinite the several states under 
an imperial head, and ultimately offered the sovereignty to the king of 
Prussia. Events had long been pointing toward Prussian leadership in 
German affairs, since in 1819 a Zollverein or Customs-union, founded by 
Frederic William III., had begun to combine the commercial relations of 
the different states in a uniform system. In spite of the urgent request 

of the Prussian Estates, Frederic William IV. refused the 
^^^ ' ' imperial crown, and the consummation, then doubtless de- 

sired by a majority of the German people, was delayed nearly a quarter 
of a century. Willing, however, to make his power felt, the king not 
only renewed his war against Denmark, interrupted a few months by the 
truce of Malmo, but sent armies to put down democratic risings in Sax- 
ony, Baden, and Wirtemberg. He proposed also to satisfy the demand for 
German unity by a new imperial constitution similar to that of Frank- 
fort, but placing the three kings of Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony at its 
head. The last two sovereigns, however, soon departed from the agree- 
ment, and the bond of union among the German states remained for 
some years slighter than ever. The Schleswig-Holstein question — after 
several battles and sieges which we have not room to recount — was at 
least temporarily disposed of by a marriage of Prince Christian of Schles- 
wig-Holstein-Glucksburg with a Princess of Hesse, and a treaty signed 
at London, in 1852, by most of the great powers of Europe providing for 
the union of the whole Danish dominion in their family. 

146. The power of the Hapsburgs had meanwhile been shaken to its 
foundations. In March, 1848, a Hungarian deputation with Kossuth at 
their head arrived at Vienna, bearing a demand for the complete separa- 
tion of their country from Austria in all matters of war, finances, and 
foreign relations, not less than in the ministry and Diet which were 
already distinct. This was a movement of the Magyars — the dominant 



HUNGARIAN REPUBLIC PROCLAIMED. 415 

race in Hungary — and it aroused the jealousy of the Croats and Sla- 
vonians, who were already offended by the use of the Magyar language in 
the Diet and courts of law. Jellachich, Ban of Croatia, raised an army 
in support of the imperial government. The democrats of Vienna, on 
the contrary, took part with the Magyars, and prevented the march of 
an imperial army into Hungary. Latour, the war-minister, was beaten 
to death by the mob, and the emperor fled into Moravia, 

. Oct., 1848. 

leaving his capital in their hands. It was besieged three 
weeks and at length taken by storm, by the imperial army, reinforced 
by Jellachich and his Croats. Meanwhile the archduke Stephen had re- 
signed his office as Palatine of Hungary, and Count Lemberg, who was 
sent by the emperor to dissolve the Diet was assassinated on the bridge 
of Pesth. Kossuth, as President of the Committee of National Defense, 
became leader of the Eevolution. 

147. The timid and vacillating Ferdinand I. resigned the imperial 
crown, Dec. 2., in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph. The first care 
of the new emperor was the reduction of Hungary, which he committed 
to Prince Windischgratz, the captor of Vienna. At his approach, Kos- 
suth abandoned Pesth, carrying with him the crown of St. Stephen, and 
tried, by retreating, to draw the Austrians after him into the interior of 
the country. Many Poles threw themselves with zeal into the Hungarian 
cause, and the Czar Nicholas offered his aid to Francis Joseph, fearing 
lest the success of the rebels should lead to a similar effort in his own 
lately subjugated province. The Austrians were nevertheless defeated at 
Waitzen and Gran, and encountered every-where a spirited and able re- 
sistance. The court at Vienna decreed the extinction of Hungarian 
nationality ; the Diet at Debreczin retorted by deposing the House of 
Hapsburg-Lorraine, and proclaiming a Republic with Kossuth at its head. 
An overwhelming force was now concentrated from the north, west, and 
south upon Hungary. Windischgratz was superseded by the brutal field- 
marshal Haynau, who had lately ended the insurrection in Lombardy. 
His victory at Temesvar crushed the hopes of the patriots ; Kossuth re- 
signed his office, and Gorgei was made Dictator. The military genius of 
Gorgei had been proved on many a battle-field ; but he was probably a 
traitor at heart — within two days of his appointment he 

delivered up his army and artillery to the Russians. All 

was lost. Kossuth with a few followers found refuge with the Turks; 

and the Sultan refused all the demands of Russia and Austria for their 

surrender. 

148. Italy, meanwhile, had her full share of revolutions. A secret 
league, called Young Italy, organized by Mazzini, had for its object the 
expulsion of all foreign rulers from the peninsula. The liberal measures 
adopted by Pope Pius IX. at his accession, led to the hope that like 



416 MODERN HISTORY. 

Julius II., though in a happier spirit, he would become the champion 
of the unity and independence of Italy; and a step in this direction 
seemed actually to have been taken by the formation of a Customs- 
union between Sardinia, Tuscany, and the States of the Church. In 
almost all the Italian states, as in Germany, representative constitutions 
were granted, after more or less resistance, to the demands of the people. 
The Sicilians elected the Duke of Genoa to be their king, and for more 
than a year maintained a war for independence against the odious gov- 
ernment of Ferdinand V. of Naples. 

149. In Austrian Italy, the archduke Eainer was viceroy, and Marshal 
Radetzki, a veteran of eighty-two years, commanded the armies. In 
March, 1848, an insurrection broke out in Milan ; barricades were erected, 
and a four days' fight resulted in the defeat of the Austrians. Charles 
Albert of Sardinia marched with his whole army to the aid of the in- 
surgents, occupied Milan, and pursued Eadetzki to a strong position be- 
tween the Mincio and the Adige, where he waited, hoping that the sov- 
ereignty of upper Italy might fall into his hands without a blow. The 
Austrian garrisons of Brescia and several important places surrendered 

to the insurgents; Venice expelled her foreign rulers and 
proclaimed a restoration of the Eepublic. In June and 
July, both Lombardy and Venice declared themselves annexed to Sar- 
dinia. Meanwhile Radetzki, being reinforced, was able to resume the 
offensive. After a victory at Custozza he recovered Milan; and in spite 
of the brave resistance of Garibaldi and his volunteers, all Lombardy 
submitted before the middle of August to the Austrian rule. Venice 
was only reduced by a severe and disastrous siege of more than a year, 
during which the Austrians lost 20,000 men chiefly by the fevers occa- 
sioned by the malaria of the marshes. Aug. 22., 1849. 

150. In the spring of 1849, Eadetzki invaded Sardinia, and gained so 
signal a victory at Novara, that Charles Albert in despair resigned his 
crown to his son Victor Emmanuel II., who immediately made a truce 
with the Austrians. The liberal dispositions of the Pope, meanwhile, 
were far outrun by the demands of the people. The latter clamored for 
a declaration of war against Austria, in the interest of the Lombard in- 
surgents. Attempting to conciliate all sides, Pius was suspected of favor- 
ing the foreign tyrants. His minister, Count Eossi, was murdered; and 
he himself was attacked in his palace on the Quirinal, which was taken 
by storm, but not until the Pope had escaped in a servant's livery and 
found refuge at Gaeta. Garibaldi entered Eome with an army of Italian 

volunteers; a general Constituent Assembly was opened, 

whose first act was to depose the Pope and proclaim a 

Eoman Eepublic. The chief mover was Mazzini, who with Armellini 

and Safli constituted the executive power of the new Eepublic. Prince 



BO ME TAKEN BY THE FBENCH. 417 

Ciiarles of Canino, a son of Lucien Bonaparte, was another of the leaders, 
hut his cousin, the French president, disavowed his proceedings, and sent 
an army to the aid of the Pope. Marshal Oudinot was defeated by Gari- 
baldi before the walls of Eome, but he gained time by negotiations until 
reinforcements could arrive, and the city was taken, July 3, 1849. Maz- 
zini and Garibaldi escaped, and a government was reestablished in the 
name of the Pope, who, however, chose to remain at Gaeta until April, 
1850, rather than occupy his capital under foreign protection. 

E<EC.A.2=ITTJIi-A.TIOIsr. 

During 380 years of Turkish rule, bands of Greek mountaineers and Klephts maintained 
a partial independence. Society of Heteeria (founded before 1798, revived, 1816) concerts 
plans of revolt. Hostility of the Holy Alliance. Proclamation by Ypsilanti; massacre of 
Greeks at Constantinople ; destruction of Sacred Band at Dragaschan ; bravery of Klephts 
at Thermopylffi. Congress at Epidaurus adopts provisional government. Massacre at Scio. 
Death of Marco Bozzaris. Arrival of Byron and other PMlhellenes. Invasion of Morea by 
Mehemet Ali ; capture of Missolonghi and Athens. Victory of English, French, and Rus- 
sian fleets at Navarino. Invasion of Turkey by the Czar. Treaty of Adrianople recognizes 
the independence of the Greeks. Otho of Bavaria reigns thirty years as King of Hellas, 
and is superseded by George of Denmark. Conquest of Syria by Ibrahim Pacha calls for 
interference of the western powers. Treaty of London restores Crete and Syria to Turkey. 
English influence predominant at Constantinople. 

Embarrassments of Louis Philippe. Death of the Duke of Orleans. Intervention in 
domestic affairs of Spain, where Carlists and Christinos dispute the crown after the death 
of Ferdinand VII. Reform banquets threaten the French government. Guizot at head 
of the ultra-royalist, Thiers of the moderate or constitutional party. Military interference 
occasions the outbreak of revolution. The royal family escape. Provisional government 
declared. National workshops opened. Attempt to control them leads to riot, during 
which Cavaignac is Dictator. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte becomes President. 

Accessions of Victoria in England, Ernest Augustus in Hanover, Frederic William IV. 
in Prussia, Oscar in Sweden, Frederic VII. in Denmark. Revolt of Schleswig-Holstein 
with the aid of the Germans. Revolutions of 1848 extend to Prussia, Austria, Hungary, 
Switzerland, and all the German and Italian states. King of Prussia refuses the imperial 
crown. Croats and Slavonians of Hungary fight against the Magyars, while revolutionists 
in Austria take their part. Flight of the emperor, assassination of Latour at Vienna and 
of Lemberg at Pesth. Siege and storm of Vienna by imperial army. Abdication of Ferdi- 
nand L, accession of Francis Joseph. Hungarian Republic proclaimed ; Kossuth governor. 
Russians invade Hungary ; Haynau in command of the Austrians gains a victory at 
Temesvar ; Gorgei, Dictator, betrays his trust. Kossuth is a fugitive and the revolution 
is ended. 

"Young Italy" seeks deliverance from foreign rule. Customs-union between Rome, 
Sardinia, and Tuscany. King of Sardinia aids Lombardy and Venice in their revolt 
against Austria. Victory of Radetzki at Custozza ; submission of Lombardy ; siege and 
surrender of Venice. Charles Albert of Sardinia, defeated at Novara, abdicates in favor 
of Victor Emmanuel II. Murder of Count Rossi, capture of the Quirinal palace and flight 
of the Pope. Roman Republic proclaimed by Mazzini and Garibaldi. Rome retaken by 
the French army and the Pope reinstated. 

The Second French Empire. 
151. France, warned by her bitter experience of revolutions, looked 
with dread to the new election which the constitution had appointed for 
M. H.-27. 



418 MODERN HISTORY. 

the spring of 1852, and the more because the law as it stood forbade the 
reelection of the present ruler. Few men ever less resembled the first 
Napoleon than his nephew and representative. Yet the accident of his 
birth — or rather, perhaps, the death of his cousin, the king of Eome — 
made him a political adventurer, and engaged him in the enterprise of 
reviving the empire of the Bonapartes. Bolder in scheming than in 
action, his habits were those of a studious recluse, rather than of a leader 
of men; and the attempts at Strasbourg and Boulogne had proved him 
more capable of conceiving perilous enterprises than of carrying them 
into execution. Long years of study during his imprisonment and exile 
had made him proficient in theories of state-craft and of national defense ; 
his state papers during his presidency had been marked by profound abil- 
ity. He would perhaps have been considered rather the secretary than 
the author of the coup d'etat, had it not ended by placing a crown upon 
his head. 

152. Though many men of high character and illustrious rank would 
willingly have consented to a renewal or prolongation of the president's 
term of oflice, none would connive at any illegal act to secure that end. 
Therefore during the autumn of 1851, several offices in the government, 
the army, and the National Guard were filled by persons of doubtful or 
discreditable history, but who were wholly subservient to the will of 
Bonaparte. Chief of these were the Count de Morny, General St. Ar- 
naud, who was made minister of war, Maupas, prefect of police, and Mag- 
nan, commandant of the army about Paris. Two adventurers, named 
Fleury and Persigny — men who had all to gain and nothing to lose — 
had important though less conspicuous parts. On Monday evening, Dec. 
1, the president held his usual reception at the palace of the Elysee. 
When the guests had retired, Morny, Maupas, and St. Arnaud remained 
for a final consultation. Other members of the plot were already in 
action. In the darkness and silence of the night, seventy-eight persons 
including the principal generals and statesmen of France, were seized at 
their own houses and carried away to prison. A great military force 
was massed between the Elysee and the Tuileries. Ofiices of newspapers 
were occupied by soldiers. At the government printing-house, the print- 
ers, under a strong guard of police, set up the proclamations which were 
to be distributed before daylight. 

153. When morning dawned, the walls were found covered with the 
announcements : " The National Assembly is dissolved ; universal suffrage 
IS reestablished ; the elective colleges are summoned to meet Dec. 21. 
Paris is in a state of siege." These were followed by an address to the 
people, proposing a responsible chief for ten years; and to the soldiers, 
reminding them of the neglect they had suffered under Louis Philippe, 
and promising a renewal of their ancient glory. At the same hour, in- 



THE SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE. 419 

the remotest provinces, the telegraph announced a revolution accom- 
plished at Paris, and described the joy of that sleeping city in a change 
of which it had not even dreamed. The Deputies, meeting on the morn- 
ing of Dec. 2, resolved that the President had forfeited 
his office by illegal acts of violence. They were arrested 
to the number of 235, and conveyed in felons' carts to various prisons. 
The Supreme Court, having likewise ordered the impeachment of the 
President, was expelled by an armed force. The resistance, however, 
was feeble, for to the prosperous classes any rule was better than anarchy. 
Victor Hugo and a few other deputies who had escaped arrest, organized 
a committee and erected a barricade. On Dec. 4, an army of 48,000 
men was converged upon the city. A multitude of peaceful spectators 
regarded the parade from windows and sidewalks, when suddenly, with- 
out provocation, the troops began firing into the crowd. Thousands must 
have fallen. This wanton massacre arose probably from a panic among 
the troops, aggravated by their enmity to the citizens, and may have 
formed no part of the general plan; but for the deliberate murder of 
many hundreds in prison — the transportation of 26,500 to the noxious 
climates of Cayenne and the African coast, the President and his advisers 
can not so easily be excused. 

154. By the subsequent election, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was 
invested with the entire executive power for ten years. The generals and 
deputies were now released from imprisonment, but Changarnier, Victor 
Hugo and several others were permanently banished. In a tour through 
France in the year 1852, the President was every-where greeted with cries 
of " Vive I' Empereur ! " Returning to Paris, he directed the Senate to 
debate the question of a change of government, and submit their decision 
to the sanction of the people. As before, the masses voted under dicta- 
tion ; scarcely a show of opposition appeared ; and the President became 
" Napoleon III., by the grace of God, and by the will of the people, Em- 
peror of the French." Dec. 2, 1852. 

155. The first great event under the second Empire was the war in 
the Crimea against the Czar. Napoleon felt it necessary to redeem his 
promise to the soldiers, and at the same time to absorb and gratify the 
nation by the indulgence of its passion for military glory. Nothing 
could so conduce to the security of his throne as a close alliance with 
England, and this he gained by adopting the English policy, usually 
different from that of France, concerning the Eastern Question. The 
Turks had a prophecy that their empire in Europe would be overthrown 
just four hundred years from its establishment. Early in 1853 — the 
year of prophecy — the Czar made secret proposals to the English gov- 
ernment to join him in the partition of the spoils of the " sick man of 
Europe." These overtures were firmly rejected; and England drew closer 



420 MODERN HISTORY. 

her relations with the other great powers, but especially with France, in 
order to resist any aggression on the part of Eussia. 

156. Nicholas, having mustered a great fleet and army at Sevastopol, 
sent Prince Mentschikoff to Constantinople with a peremptory message 
demanding not only increased control of the holy places of Syria and 
Palestine, but a protectorate, which would really, have involved a sov- 

. ereignty, over the ten or twelve millions of Eusso-Greek Christians in- 
habiting the Turkish provinces. The insulting manner in which the 
demand was urged made it seem only a pretext for war, and a few weeks 
later the armies of the Czar occupied Moldavia and Wallachia by way 
of "material guarantee." A moving cause of hostilities on the part of 
Nicholas was his personal resentment against Lord Stratford de Eedcliffe, 
whom he called the " English Sultan," and whose ascendency in the 
counsels of the Porte was continually thwarting the movements of the 
Eussian embassadors. The firmness of Lord Stratford — added to his 
power to summon a British fleet from Malta — was of great service in 
allaying a panic at Constantinople, and encouraging the Turkish minis- 
ters to persist in their opposition to the unreasonable demands of the 
Czar ; while a Congress at Vienna of Austrian, Prussian, French, and 
English embassadors sought to settle the differences between Eussia and 
the Porte by negotiation and thus maintain peace. 

157. Their efforts were in vain. In October, 1853, the Sultan declared 
war ; his general, Omar Pasha, promptly crossing the Danube, gained at 
Oltenitza a victory over the invaders; and in January a four days' as- 
sault upon the Turkish lines at Kalafat was followed by a retreat of the 
Eussians. Before this (Nov. 30) a fleet issuing from Sevastopol had de- 
stroyed a Turkish squadron in the harbor of Sinope and bombarded the 
town. Four thousand Turks were slain. The Czar refused even to 
answer a note addressed to him by the governments at London and 
Paris, requiring his withdrawal from the Danubian provinces, and stat- 
ing that his refusal or silence would be considered as cause of war. All 

hope of peace being thus at an end, France and England con- 
cluded a close alliance with each other and with Turkey, 
and declared war against Eussia. A counter-declaration was made by the 
Czar, April 11, and Prince Paskievitch with a great force laid siege to 
Silistria. Contrary to all expectation, the Turks resisted with such spirit 
and success that the siege was raised in little more than a month. An- 
other defeat at Giurgevo caused the Eussians to abandon the lower 
Danube and even Moldavia and Wallachia. 

158. The special cause of war being thus removed, France and Eng- 
land might have ended the contest, but they resolved, on the contrary, 
to deprive the Czar of the means for future aggressions by destroying 
the forts which guarded the harbor and immense military magazines of 



INVASION OF THE CRIMEA. 421 

Sevastopol. The allied armies were therefore conveyed hj sea to the 
Crimea. The Tartar inhabitants of the country, though professing them- 
selves contented with the Russian rule, betrayed no hostility toward their 
fellow-Mohammedans or their allies, but readily brought supplies of food, 
and sold their beasts of burden for the use of the armies. On the 20th 
of September the strong positions of Prince Mentschikoff on the heights 
above the Alma were stormed and taken. Then pressing on, the land forces, 
in concert with the fleet which had followed their movements, occupied 
the port of Balaklava and proceeded to lay siege to Sevastopol. The 
defenses of the town, planned and vigorously executed by Colonel Tod- 
leben, resisted all assaults for nearly a year. 

159. The battle of Balaklava (Oct. 25) is chiefly memorable for the 
gallant but desperate charge of a cavalry brigade, in obedience to a mis- 
taken order, down a long valley swept from either side and from the end 
by the enemies' guns ; and which resulted in a sacrifice of more than 
two-thirds of the men. The victory was claimed by the Russians; it 
revived the courage of their comrades within the walls of Sevastopol, and 
doubtless prolonged their resistance. At Inkermann, however, a very 
superior Russian force attacking the British lines was repulsed. The 
armies of the allies suffered far more from disease than from battle ; and 
the hardships of the British troops were aggravated by the mismanage- 
ment of their commissariat — men dying from hunger, sickness, and cold 
within a few miles of plentiful supplies of clothing, medicines, and stores. 
Indignation at this state of things led in England to the fall of Lord 
Aberdeen's ministry, and Lord Palmerston became the responsible head 
of the government. Meanwhile the misery of the army threw into 
stronger light the merciful ministrations of Florence Nightingale, an 
English lady, who, having subjected herself to thorough training in the 
duties of a nurse, devoted her untiring energies — together with a band 
of voluntary subordinates — to alleviating the sufferings which she could 
not prevent. 

160. English and French fleets penetrated the Baltic and Polar Seas, 
but accomplished little beyond the burning of timber and naval stores. 
During the winter of 1854 and '55 the allies were joined by Austria 
and Sardinia, and the latter sent a well appointed army of 15,000 
men to the Crimea. The sudden death of the Czar, and the accession 
of his son Alexander II., renewed the hope of peace. The allied nations, 
however, considered their honor engaged to the capture of Sevastopol, 
which still repulsed the most resolute assaults. A British fleet entered 
the Sea of Azov, captured Kertch and Yenikale, and destroyed great 
quantities of stores and provisions. At length the forts at Sevastopol 
were reduced almost to heaps of rubbish by a bombardment which lasted 
from August 16 to September 8. The French succeeded in taking the 



422 MODERN HISTORY. 

Malakoff by assault; the English were less fortunate in their storm of 
the Redan ; but the city being no longer tenable, Prince Gortchakoff 
retired to the north forts, and destroyed all the shipping in the harbor. 

161. The Russians had meanwhile been carrying on a war with the 
Turks in the Trans-Caucasian provinces, and had made some conquests 
which counterbalanced the loss of Sevastopol. Under the mediation of 
Austria, preliminaries of peace were signed at St. Petersburg before the 
end of 1855, and were confirmed at Paris, March 30, 1856, by the minis- 
ters of Great Britain, Russia, France, Sardinia, and Turkey. The last 
named power was admitted into the European system of states, and the 
integrity of her dominions was guaranteed ; conquests were mutually re- 
stored ; the Danube and the Black Sea were thrown freely open to the 
commerce of all nations, but the latter was closed against ships of war. 
Servia and her native prince, though owning a sort of dependence upon 
Turkey, were placed under the protection of the five great powers. A 
few years later Moldavia and Wallachia were erected into a nearly inde- 
pendent state under the name of Roumania. Their sovereign is elected 
by the people, subject to the approval of the Sultan. 

162. In its general discussion of European affairs, the Congress of Paris 
complained of the continued occupation of the Papal States by French 
and Austrian troops. Since 1849, the French had occupied Rome, while 
the Austrian armies held the provinces north of the Apennines known 
as the " Legations." Neither nation could withdraw without leaving the 
other absolute ruler of central Italy. Austria, indeed, exercised already 
a controlling power in every Italian state except Sardinia. The liberal 
constitution of Naples had been overthrown by Austrian intervention. 
The duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena were occupied by Austrian 
forces, whose generals exerted civil as well as military control in con- 
tempt of existing laws. Suspected persons were carried away to the 
fortresses of Mantua or Kufstein, or were even sentenced to death in the 
name and by the authority of the emperor Francis Joseph. To defeat the 
Carbonari and other liberal associations, three secret societies, composed 
of the most unscrupulous characters, armed in support of the govern- 
ment; assured of impunity, they robbed and murdered not only men 
but women and even children in open day, and neither the papal nor 
the ducal authorities chose to interfere. 

163. The hope of Italy was in the House of Savoy and in the ex- 
pected intervention of France. Victor Emmanuel, after the battle of 
Novara (§ 150), might have established an absolute despotism with the 
favor and support of Austria ; he chose rather to reign as a constitu- 
tional monarch, and to become the champion of Italian independence. 
Consequently, when in 1859 hostilities began to threaten, volunteers 
escaping by stealth from every state in Italy flocked by twenties and 



WAB OF ITALIAN NATIONALITY. 423 

hundreds to his camp. Of his five superior generals three were Tuscans. 
On the other hand, Napoleon III., who derived his power professedly 
from the will of the people, had manifest grounds of difference with 
Francis Joseph, who founded his pretensions upon an ancient name, while 
claiming a control in Italy which his ancestors, even during the existence 
of the Holy Roman Empire, had never been able to enforce. In opposi- 
tion to the hereditary theory, the French emperor asserted that of national 
unity and the solidarity of races, and found his natural allies in the Latin 
nations of the two peninsulas. In his efforts for the unification of Italy 
he was ably assisted by Count Cavour, the Sardinian prime minister. 

164. On the 23d of April, 1859, the Austrian embassador at Turin de- 
manded the reduction of the Sardinian army to a peace footing; the 
demand was refused, and on the same day the Austrian forces crossed 
the Ticino. A French army was already landed at Genoa, and Napo- 
leon, leaving the empress Eugenie as Regent of France in his absence, 
assumed the command, May 12. The Grand-duke of Tuscany, the Duke 
of Modena, and the Duchess of Parma fled from their capitals. Victor 
Emmanuel was declared Dictator of Tuscany ; declining that ofiice, he 
accepted the command of its armies, which were joined with those of 
France and Sardinia. On the 20th of May the Austrians were defeated 
in a five hours' battle at Montebello, and again on the 30th and 31st at 
Palestro. But far more decisive was the victory of the French and Sar- 
dinians at Magenta, June 4. General MacMahon coming up with his 
French reserves at the crisis of the battle, contributed greatly to the re- 
sult, and he was rewarded by a marshal's baton, with the title of-'Duke^ 
of Magenta. The battle of Marignano, though less important; was also 
disastrous to the Austrians, and the next day (June 8) Napoleon and 
Victor Emmanuel entered Milan in triumph. 

165. The Austrians now retreated within the "Quadrilateral" formed 
by the fortresses of Cremona, Peschiera, Verona, and Mantua. The final 

contest of the war took place at Solferino. The Austrians 

f June 24, 1859. 

were again defeated, and on the 8th of July the two em- 
perors met at Villafranca to arrange the preliminaries of a peace. 
Austria surrendered to France all Lombardy (excepting the fortresses of 
Mantua and Peschiera) to be presented by Napoleon to Sardinia. The 
Italian states were recommended to unite themselves in a federal league 
under the honorary presidency of the Pope. Venetia, though remaining 
subject to Austria, might become a member of the Confederation. This 
plan was far from satisfying the demand for national unity. Tuscany, 
Modena, Parma, and the papal province of Romagna petitioned the king 
of Sardinia to take them under his dominion. The kingdom of Italy, 
thus constituted, was increased the following year by the conquest of 
Sicily by Garibaldi and his volunteers, the capture of Ancona and a great 



424 MODERN HISTORY. 

part of the papal territories, and the flight of the Bourbon king, Francis 
II., from Naples. A unanimous vote of the people of the Two Sicilies 
declared their union with the kingdom of Italy under the scepter of 
Victor Emmanuel. After a victory at the Garigliano, that 
sovereign entered Naples and was acknowledged as king of 
the whole country from the Alps to the southernmost point of Sicily, 
the city of Rome and its immediate territories being the only exceptions 
beside Venetia. 

166. The next general disturbance of the peace of Europe arose from 
the Danish Question. The death of Frederic VII. in 1863 ended the 
Oldenburg line of sovereigns, which had reigned more than four hundred 
years. The Congress of London in 1852 had provided for the accession,, 
in such an event, of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Glucksburg, 
w^ho had married a grand-niece of the late king. The claims of the elder, 
or Augustenburg branch of his family to the duchies, were purchased for 
three and a half millions of dollars, and it was expressly arranged that 
the ducal as well as the royal dominions should descend to Prince Chris- 
tian. A party in Germany, since 1848, had strongly desired the inde- 
pendence of the duchies, and this was now joined by Austria and Prussia, 
whose influence in the Diet at Frankfort secured a vote for the occupa- 
tion of Holstein by federal troops. The Prussian Legislative Assembly 
voted that the honor and interest of Germany demanded the recognition 
and support of the Prince of Augustenburg as Duke of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein. But tl\is was only a temporary expedient. Count Bismarck, the 
Prussian minister, had planned, not only a Prussian naval arsenal at Kiel 
in Holstein, but the reunion of all Germany with the king his master at 
its head. 

167. Austria was a necessary ally at this stage of the movement, and 
by subtle diplomacy the court of Vienna was persuaded to join Prussia 
in an invasion of the disputed duchies, notwithstanding the protest of the 
Diet, which had appointed Hanover and Saxony to execute the military 
occupation in the name of the German confederacy. The allied forces 
under General Wrangel entered Holstein in January, 1864. The Danes 
were constantly defeated on land, though their fleet kept up a blockade 
of the Prussian ports and defeated that of the invaders off" Heligoland. 
Not only the duchies, but Jutland itself had to be abandoned by the 
Danish forces, which concentrated themselves in the islands; but after 
the bombardment and surrender of Alsen, resistance ceased. By the 
Peace of Vienna, King Christian resigned Schleswig, Holstein, and Lau- 
enburg, and agreed to recognize whatever government Austria and Prussia 
should see fit to establish. It now appeared that the claims of the Duke 
of Augustenburg had been merely a pretext on the part of the two great 
powers; for they continued to occupy the duchies with military force^ 



THE SEVEN WEEK'S WAR. 425 

and by the convention of Gastein allotted Schleswig and Lauenburg to 
Prussia, and Holstein to Austria. (Aug., 1865.) 

168. Since 1859 the Prussian armies had undergone a complete re- 
organization under Count von Eoon. The infantry were armed with the 
needle-gun, and the whole military system had been brought to the high- 
est degree of efficiency. Austria clung to her old weapons and traditions, 
while in diplomacy also she had no match for the far-seeing and resolute 
intellect of Bismarck. The short and decisive struggle for leadership in 
Germany was now approaching. By a personal conference with Napoleon 
III. at Biarritz, Bismarck ascertained that France would not interfere. 
England was known to desire peace at any price. Russia was under 
recent obligations to Prussia for active assistance against the Poles. 
Italy became the close ally of Prussia, moved partly by the refusal of 
Francis Joseph to sell Venetia to Victor Emmanuel. General La Mar- 
mora said in a dispatch to Berlin : " Piedmont began in 1859 the task 
of freeing Italy with the noble aid of France. We desire that within no 
distant period that task may be accomplished . . , perhaps by a war 
of independence fought side by side with that nation which represents 
the future of the German people in the name and on the principle of 
an identical nationality." It was agreed not to end the war until Italy 
had acquired Venetia, and Prussia a corresponding increase of territory 
in Germany. 

169. Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse refusing to take part in the war, all 

three countries were occupied by Prussian troops. The blind King 

George of Hanover was allowed only twelve hours to choose between 

alliance against Austria and war with Prussia. In the battle of Langen- 

salza the Hanoverians were victorious, but they were soon 

n , T ^ -, . ^ June, 1866. 

surrounded by fresh reinforcements of the Prussians, and 

the king was compelled to surrender not only his army but his crown. 
He was permitted to "fix his residence, at His Majesty's pleasure, any- 
where except in the realm of Hanover," and the conquered territory now 
formed the needed link between the severed provinces of East and West 
Prussia. In western Germany the army of General Manteuflel was op- 
posed by the forces of the Confederacy under princes Charles, of Bavaria 
and Alexander of Hesse ; while in the east, where the more important 
action took place, the Crown Prince and his cousin. Prince Frederic 
Charles, "wrestled their way" through the mountains of the Saxon and 
Silesian frontiers into Bohemia, where they were met by the main Austrian 
army under Marshal Benedek. At AschafFenburg the Prussians gained 
an easy victory, owing to the large proportion of Venetian troops in the 
Austrian contingent, who, rather than fight their friends and allies, sought 
the earliest opportunity to surrender. 

170. The Prussians then occupied Frankfort without resistance, and 



426 MODERN HISTORY. 

proceeded to exact enormous contributions " by right of conquest." In 
case the last tfen millions of thalers were delayed, General Manteuffel 
threatened bombardment and plunder, though the rights of the " Free 
City" were under the especial protection of international law. The 
states of southern Germany had in the field double the number of men 
that Prussia could oppose to them; and their failure even to check the 
progress of Manteuffel, proved what Bismarck had charged — the ineffi- 
ciency of the Confederation. Meanwhile in Bohemia the two princes, by 
a series of hard-won but decisive victories, had gained command of the 
Iser and upper Elbe. In the neighborhood of Konigsgratz, Marshal Ben- 
edek, with his whole Austrian force of 200,000 men, lay aAvalting their 
arrival. The furious combat which folloAved takes its name 
^ ^ ' ■ from the village of Sadowa — one of many which were in- 
cluded' in the battle-field. Here, as every-where, the terrible swiftness 
and precision of the Prussian fire prevailed even over the valor and dis- 
cipline of the Austrians ; while the Austrian cavalry, hitherto the most 
celebrated in Europe, was driven to flight by the Uhlans. A storm of 
wind and rain prevailed through the day. Late in the afternoon the 
Prussian guards seized Chlum, the center of Benedek's position, and 
kept it against three resolute attacks by superior numbers. This decided 
the battle.. A large portion of the Austrian cannon, with 20,000 pris- 
oners, were taken. An equal number of men lay dead upon the field. 

171. As a consequence of the victory of Sadowa, Venetia was ceded to 
the emperor of the French, to be given by him to Victor Emmanuel. 
The king of Italy had been far less fortunate than his ally. He had 
been defeated with great loss (June 24) at Custozza ; and on the day of 
the battle in Bohemia, Garibaldi and his volunteers were worsted at 
Monte Suello. But the unity of Italy was accomplished in the same 
stroke with that of Germany. The Venetians, by an almost unanimous 
vote and by a personal welcome, accepted Victor Emmanuel as their 
sovereign, and a thanksgiving for the great event was celebrated in the 
Church of St. Mark. 

172. In Germany the victories of Prussia in the "Seven Weeks' War" 
were confirmed by the Treaty of Prague. The German Confederation was 
dissolved. Austria acquiesced in the aggrandizement of Prussia and en- 
gaged to take no part in the reconstruction of Germany, while she paid 
twenty millions of thalers toward Prussian expenses jn the war. The 
ascendency among the German states, enjoyed for nearly six hundred 
years by the House of Hapsburg, was transferred to the more ancient* 
but hitherto less celebrated House of Hohenzollern. 



*The sovereigns of Prussia trace their lineage to Count Tassilo of Hohenzollern, who 
died A. D. 800. Subsequent members of the family became burgraves of Nuremberg, mar- 
grares of Brandenburg, and dukes of Prussia. The Hapsburgs date from A. D. 1096. 



END OF AUSTRIAN ABSOLUTISM. 4:Tl 

173. Confining himself to the government of his hereditary dominions, 
Francis Joseph sought by a series of wise and needed reforms to raise 
them from the state of prostration and despair to which they had been 
brought by the terrible reverses of war. His finances were ruined, his 
armies nearly annihilated, and the several nationalities which had been 
forcibly united under his scepter were ready to revolt against an abso- 
lute policy which deprived them of civil and religious rights. The hopes 
of the Liberals were revived by the appointment of the Saxon Baron 
von Beust as President of the Imperial Council. Representative assem- 
blies, now reestablished, gave to the people their just share in the bur- 
dens and privileges of government. Hungary had her own Diet and a 
separate ministry with Count Andrassy at its head, though united with 
Austria under the same sovereign, and having her part in the common 
interests of the Empire by means of a joint assembly known as " The 
Delegations," composed of sixty members from each parliament, and 
meeting alternately at the two capitals. In 1867, Francis Joseph re- 
ceived the crown of St. Stephen at Pesth, and the next year an imperial 
decree changed the title of his dominion to the " Austro-Hungarian 
Monarchy," recognizing the separate nationality of his subjects east of 
the Leitha. 

174. The constitution of Austria thus approaches nearly to that of 
England, where a ministry chosen from the party having a majority in 
Parliament, is responsible for all the acts of the government. The mag- 
nates and clergy naturally resist, but the emperor has been firm and 
constant in his adherence to the new policy. In a single session of the 
Eeichsrath, or Austrian Parliament, despotisms of a thou- 
sand years were swept away. Marriage and education were ' ' ' ' 
made independent of priestly control; and all classes, religions, and na- 
tionalities were declared equal before the law. Probably such complete 
reforms were never before accomplished in so short a time, unless we 
except the acts of the French National Assembly in August, 1789. But 
in France all existing institutions were then plunging down a steep 
descent into chaos, while in Austria a new and better order has taken 
the place of the old, and conflicting opinions have produced no outward 
disturbance of the public peace. In 1870 the Concordat with the Pope, 
already disregarded in the acts above mentioned, was formerly annulled, 
and perfect toleration was established. 

Coup d'Etat of 1851 makes Louis Napoleon President for ten years of the French Re- 
public. In 1852 he becomes Emperor ; in 1854 joins England in war against Russia for the 
preservation of the Ottoman dominions. The Czar Nicholas seizes the Danubian provinces, 
rejects the intercessions of the Congress of Vienna, orders an attack upon the Turkish 
fleet and fort at Sinope. His armies are defeated in Wallachia, compelled to raise the 
siege of Silistria. and withdraw frfini tlie Danube. French, Enghsh, and Turkish forces 



428 MODERN HISTORY. 

invade the Crimea, gain a victory at tlie Alma, and lay siege to Sevastopol. Charge.of tha 
Light Brigade at Balaklava — a sanguinary and indecisive battle. Repulse of the Russians 
at Inkermaun. Sufferings of British soldiers alleviated by Florence Nightingale and her 
assistants. Austria and Sardinia become allies in the war. Death of Nicholas, accession 
of Alexander II. in Russia. Conquests of the British in the Sea of Azov— of the Russians 
between the Caspian and Black Seas. Bombardment and surrender of Sevastopol. Peace 
of Paris. 

Supremacy of Austria in Italy. King of Sardinia is champion of liberal institutions 
and of Italian nationality. Napoleon III. joins the French army in Italy ; allied forces 
defeat the Austrians at Montebello, Palestro, Magenta, and Solferino. Peace of Villafranca 
adds Lombardy to the kingdom of Victor Emmanuel. By annexation of the central 
duchies and conquest of the Two Sicilies, that kingdom covers the whole peninsula ex- 
cept Venetia and the States of the Church, A. D. 1861. 

Diet at Frankfort interferes in the settlement of Holstein, upon the death of Frederic 
VII. of, Denmark. Austria and Prussia conquer Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 
which are ceded by King Christian at Peace of Vienna. Prussia then obtains the alliance 
of Victor Emmanuel in a war against Austria with the purpose of expelling the Hapsburgs 
at once from Germany and Italy. Kingdom of Hanover is overthrown, and its territories 
serve to consolidate the Prussian dominions. Progress of Manteuffel in western Germany 
unchecked by forces of the Diet. Frankfort occupied and despoiled. Two royal princes 
carry on the war in Bohemia, opposed by Benedek. Decisive victory at Sadowa. Mis- 
fortunes of Victor Emmanuel at Custozza and Monte Suello counterbalanced by the success 
of his ally ; Venetia added to his kingdom. Dissolution of the German Confederacy. 
Austria becomes a constitutional monarchy ; recognizes the distinct nationality of Hun- 
gary. Liberal reforms under Chancellor von Beust. 

The British Empire in the East. 

175. A complete account of European trading settlements in Asia 
would be foreign to the purposes of this history ; but the rise of British 
dominion in India, Australia, Borneo, and New Zealand — among the 
most remarkable series of events in the last two centuries — must be 
briefly narrated. For a hundred years from its foundation the English 
East India Company confined itself to commerce, content to obtain sites 
for its forts and warehouses by the grant of the Mogul emperors, and to 
defend them by a small guard of soldiers from the attacks of the fierce 
Mahrattas. The successive decline of the Portuguese, Dutch, and French 
interests left the trade with the great peninsula almost exclusively in its 
hands. Of the three English Presidencies (Book IV., § 132), the chief 
was at Calcutta, which, from a petty village on the Hoogly, presented 
to the company by Aurungzebe, grew to a magnificent city of palaces, 
and ultimately became the capital of Hindustan. The French had two 
Presidencies — one at Pondicherry and one on the Isle of France. 

176. The Mogul Empire in Asia during the eighteenth century was in a 
condition nearly corresponding to that of the "Roman Empire" in Europe. 
Its pretensions were unabated, but the power that had enforced them 
had declined ; and the twenty-one nations of the Hindu peninsula owned 
little more allegiance to the court of Delhi than did Frederic II. of 
Prussia to that of Vienna. The ruling race, it will be remembered, was 



THE BRITISH IN HINDUSTAN. 429 

Mohammedan, and thus alien in religion from the great mass of the 
people which held fast the ancient Hindu superstitions. The contending 
chiefs continually sought foreign alliances in their wars with each other, 
and thus the English and French became engaged, usually on different 
sides, in Indian hostilities. 

177. The idea of replacing the Mogul by a European dominion origi- 
nated with the French, who also were the first to train Sipahis (Sepoys) 
or native soldiers to serve under European officers. This was a necessary 
step to the subjugation of India, for beside the impossibility of, transport- 
ing troops enough from Europe to conquer so vast and distant a territory, 
the climate of Hindustan would be fatal to the long continued existence 
of a foreign army. The Seven Years' War between England and France 
gave a fresh impulse to the long rivalry between their colonies in India. 
Madras was besieged and taken by the governor of the Isle 

of France, and Dupleix, governor of Pondicherry, captured 
Arcot from the native prince of the Deccan, who was an ally of the 
English. Arcot, a city of 100,000 inhabitants, was retaken by Eobert 
Clive, a young Englishman who had begun his career as clerk in the 
counting-house of the company, but whose daring genius found more 
congenial exercise in the field, and ultimately made him ruler of all 
British India. Having captured Arcot with only five hundred men, he 
successfully defended it against a force of 10,000 natives, and was re- 
warded with a commission as lieutenant-colonel. 

178. A few years later Surajah Dowlah, native viceroy of Bengal, took 
Calcutta and crowded most of the British residents, numbering 146, into 
a noisome dungeon known as the " Black Hole," where most of them 
died of suffocation in a single night. Clive, with only 3,000 men, recov- 
ered the English capital, took Hooghly by storm, and gained so decisive 
a victory over Surajah Dowlah's army of 50,000 at Plassy, that he is 
commonly considered the founder of the British-Indian Empire. From 
this point the French dominion built up by Dupleix rapidly fell; and 
within another hundred years the English had subdued the great penin- 
sula and become the rulers of 180 millions of people. This was effected 
partly by interfering in the quarrels of the native princes, partly by 
•direct purchase of the sovereignties of the several Nizams and Eajahs. 
who were secured in larger revenues than they themselves had been able 
to extort from their ill-governed estates. 

179. The policy of Clive was pursued and extended by Warren Hast- 
ings, who, upon the reconstruction of the Company's dominions in 1773, 
became Governor-General of India. During his administration Hyder 
Ali, the native Sultan of Mysore, who had been the fiercest opponent of 
the English, was reduced to submission. Both Clive and Hastings amassed 
enormous wealth in India; and though their government was more just 



430 MODERN HISTORY. 

and merciful than that of the' native despots, there is no doubt that it 
was stained by acts of oppression which were wholly indefensible under 
any Christian code of morality. The conduct of each was made the sub- 
ject of investigation by the British parliament ; and though both were 
acquitted, in view of their great and brilliant services — perhaps, too, of 
the insufficiency of evidence — Clive was driven to despair and to suicide, 
and Hastings spent his later years in retirement, 

180. Hitherto the British dominions in India had been governed ex- 
clusively by the trading company chartered by Queen Elizabeth. Upon 
the motion of Mr. Pitt, a Board of Control was established in 1784 by 
Act of Parliament, rendering the officers in India responsible in some 
measure to the home government; and by degrees a far more humane 
and liberal policy began to prevail. War continued many years with 
Tippoo Saib, who had succeeded not only to his father's sovereignty of 
Mysore, but to his implacable hatred of the English. The French, who 
had never ceased to resent their expulsion from India, and hoped that 
the British might as easily be deprived of their Asiatic, as they had 
lately been of their American possessions (Book IV., §§ 198-208), entered 
warmly, though secretly, into the plans of Tippoo. In 1792, the sultan 
was so far humbled that he begged for peace, and gave up his two sons 
as hostages ; in 1799 the war was renewed, and he fell, bravely fighting 
on the walls of his capital, Seringapatam. 

181. Successive wars with the Mahrattas, the wild Goorkas of the Ne- 
paulese mountains, and the Pindarries of the interior, ended in enormous 
additions to the Company's territories; and in 1819, its commerce was 
greatly extended by the foundation of an English colony at Singapore, 
near the southern extremity of the Malay peninsula, as a market for the 
rich productions of the Indian Archipelago. In 1833, the Company's 
charter expired, and though the government of Hindustan was again 
conferred upon it for twenty years, the trade which it had monopolized 
was thrown freely open to all British subjects. Among the most impor- 
tant consequences of this change was the extension of the opium traffic 
with China. The government of that empire, which had barely endured 
the slow and moderate operations of the company, was alarmed by a 
sudden increase of the supply of opium in the markets and by its effect 
upon the habits of the people, who were already fatally addicted to its 
use. Its importation was prohibited by imperial edict ; but the Chinese 
merchants, who were sharers in the profits, encouraged a smuggling trade, 
and the connivance of officials was easily bought. The government, in* 
censed at these proceedings, ordered the British merchants to be block- 
aded in their warehouses at Canton until they consented to give up all 
the opium in their possession, amounting, it is said, to a value of tei? 
millions of dollars. 



WAES WITH CHINESE, AFGHANS, AND SIKHS. 431 

182. This and other acts of hostility led to a war of two years, during 
which Canton was taken by the British, but ransomed for six millions 
of dollars; Amoy, Ning-po, and several other towns were bombarded and 
captured. After several deceptive negotiations which were undertaken 
merely to gain time, the Chinese were at length humbled into submission ; 
and a treaty was signed before Nankin, ceding the island of 
Hongkong to the British, throwing open the ports of Can- 
ton, Amoy, Foochoo, Ning-po, and Shanghai to foreign trade and the 
residence of European consuls, and engaging the emperor of China to 
pay twenty-one millions of dollars as war-indemnity. This treaty, how- 
ever questionable the acts which led to it, is remarkable as the first of 
a series of events which have opened the oldest of empires to the inter- 
course of other nations long excluded. 

183. During the same year, the British ended a war with the Afghans. 
It had been undertaken, A. D. 1838, in the interest of Shah Sujah, a 
deposed chief, who, when reinstated upon his throne at Cabul proved 
such an intolerable tyrant that he was murdered by his subjects. In the 
terrible hardships of their march through the deserts of Scinde and the 
Bolan mountain pass, the British soldiery showed a heroism worthy of a 
better cause. They gained many victories, and were established as victors 
in Cabul, but a revolt of the Afghans, in which several of the English 
leaders were murdered, compelled a retreat. Married ofBoers and their 
families, numbering about one hundred Europeans, were left as hostages 
with Akbar Khan. The retreating army was nearly annihilated by the 
treachery of the natives and the severity of the climate in midwinter. 
The hostages were only rescued by a fresh invading force under General 
Pollock. Afghanistan was left without settled government. The impor- 
tant province of Scinde on the lower Indus — formerly a dependency on 
the sovereigns of Cabul — was conquered in 1843 by Sir Charles Napier, 
who became its governor. 

184. Of much greater importance was the conquest of the Sikhs, the 
military rulers of the Punjab. This battle-ground of Afghan and Hindu, 
the highway of Persian and Tartar invaders, had been probably ever 
since its invasion by Alexander of Macedon a scene of perpetual rapine 
and strife. The Sikhs had a religion distinct from that of either Hindus 
or Mohammedans; by theory it was almost as mild and non-combative 
as that of the Friends or Quakers; but nature and circumstances were 
more powerful than tenets, and they formed a fierce, turbulent, and 
formidable body, of which every member aeemed born to the use of 
lance and spear. The Afghan war stirred up old enmities between the 
Sikhs and the English ; and late in 1845 a large army of the former 
crossed the River Sutlej and invaded the British province. They were 
four times defeated with heavy loss, and beside paying seven and a half 



i32 MODERN HISTORY. 

millions of dollars as war-indemnity, were compelled to leave tiieir boy- 
king under the guardianship of the English, who were to rule the coun- 
try during his minority by a special Council at Lahore. 

185. Within a few months of the signing of the treaty, the whole dov 
minion of the Sikhs was annexed to the British Empire, the young king 
being pensioned from his hereditary revenues. The Sikhs, naturally in- 
censed, renewed the war, and were still more decisively overthrown. A 
celebrated diamond, known as the Koh-i-noor, or Mountain of Light, 
which for centuries had been supposed to exert a mysterious power in 
preserving the dominion of its possessor, was taken from them and adde(i 
to the crown-jewels of the English queen. Sir Henry Lawrence, as 
Superintendent of the Punjab, undertook the difficult task of reconciling 
the conquered people to the government so illegally set up. Such was 
the kindliness and justice of his policy that in five years peace, order, 
and prosperity had succeeded to long ages of strife. Even the warlike 
chiefs were won to acquiescence, and their sons flocked eagerly to Eng- 
lish colleges, in order to prepare themselves for honorable positions in the 
civil or military service. The great mass of Hindus and Mohammedans 
who had been subject to the Sikhs, easily submitted to a rule which gave 
them greater security of life and property than they had ever before 
enjoyed. So eflPectually was the great work of pacification accomplished, 
that during the terrible scenes of 1857, soon to be described, the Punjab 
was the rallying point of British authority ; and the Sikhs were the most 
loyal subjects of the queen. But for their fidelity her empire in India 
would probably have been overthrown. 

186. In 1856 the great kingdom of Oude was annexed to the British 
dominions. Its Rajah, or king, was one of the most odious of the native 
tyrants, and had been repeatedly threatened with dethronement both for 
his oppression of his own people and for his violation of treaties with the 
English. The event perhaps hastened a crisis which had been long ap- 
prehended — the mutiny of the Sepoys. It was, indeed, almost incredible 
that a mere handful of Europeans could have maintained and increased 
their ascendency, during so many years, over hundreds of millions of 
people "of acute and active minds, in a climate exhausting and often fatal 
to the ruling class. It was still more wonderful that their power, when 
shaken by a wide-spread rebellion, should have been promptly and 
thoroughly reestablished. The native troops employed by the East 
India Company numbered 232,224. Better paid, fed, and equipped than 
they had ever been by their Hindu rulers, they were usually contented, 
and their relation to their English officers was that of childlike obe- 
dience and confidence. But they were intensely superstitious, and a 
fancied affront to their religion wounded them at a vital point. For 
their new Enfield rifles, received from England in 1856, they were pro- 



REBELLION OF THE SEPOYS. 433 

vided with cartridges supposed to contain beef-tallow. The use of this 
article was impossible to any devout Hindu ; several regiments objected, 
and the government immediately complied with their wishes by suppress- 
ing the cartridges. 

187. The discontent aroused by this and other causes, continued, how- 
ever, to spread, especially among the regiments in Bengal, Oude, and the 
province of Delhi. The middle and lower classes of the ' people joined 
the Sepoys in rebellion ; but the chiefs and great landholders, who better 
understood the English power, and had more to lose by public disturb- 
ances, generally remained loyal to the government. At Delhi and Meerut 
nearly all the European residents, including women and children, were 
massacred. Delhi became the capital of the insurgents; it was besieged 
three months by a small British army and finally taken by 

oGpt., 1858, 

storm. Its king, or " emperor," was transported to Burmah 
and his two sons were put to death. In June, Sir Hugh Wheeler had 
been attacked in Cawnpore by the Sepoys lately under his own com- 
mand, now led by Nana Sahib, rajah of Bithoor. Two hundred English 
soldiers withstood a siege of seventeen days; but at length, half their 
number being slain, the rest surrendered the place upon condition of 
being' permitted to retire down the Ganges with the 600 British resi- 
dents. The treacherous jDermission was quickly violated. No sooner had 
the embarkation begun, than the retreating column was attacked by the 
Sepoys and every man was slain. The women were crowded together 
for three weeks in one narrow room, but upon the approach of General 
Havelock for their relief, they too were murdered, and the mangled re- 
mains were thrown into a well. 

188. Though armed with the most improved weapons and long drilled 
by British officers, the Sepoys proved no match for their opponents. 
Outnumbering the little army of Havelock five, eight, and even ten 
times, they were constantly defeated, and the monster who led them saw 
his own palace occupied by the English. Having buried the dead at 
Cawnpore, Havelock pressed on to Lucknow, the capital of Oude, where 
a Scotch regiment was besieged by a large native army. The arrange- 
ments for its defense had been most skillfully made by Sir Henry Law- 
rence, already mentioned as peacemaker in the Punjab, and lately the 
governor of Oude. His noble and useful life was ended by a shot at the 
beginning of the siege. Colonel Inglis, succeeding to the command, con- 
tinued the resistance with no less constancy. Havelock, in advancing 
from Cawnpore, gained four victories over the insurgents, but his few 
hundreds of men were so exhausted that they were compelled to fall 
back, and the garrison of Lucknow were reduced almost to despair. At 
length Havelock, being reinforced, was able to recross the Ganges and 
his presence renewed the courage of the besieged. Still it was impossible 

M. H.— 28. 



434 MODERN HISTORY. 

to withraw from the place ; and it was not until the arrival of Sir Colin 
Campbell, nearly five months from its first investment, that 

Nov., 1857. F ) J » 

the survivors were rescued. General Havelock, worn out 
by his exertions and anxieties, died a few days before the abandonment 
of Lucknow. The baronetcy and pension bestowed upon him by the grat- 
itude of his queen, came too late. 

189. The capture of Lucknow the following spring by Sir Colin Camp- 
bell virtually ended the rebellion, though occasional fighting took place 
during the summer. An important Act of Parliament transferred the 
government of India from the Company to the Crown. The queen now 
appoints the Governor-General, or Viceroy, who represents her in Cal- 
cutta ; and a Council of fifteen members, presided over by the Secretary 
of State for India, has superseded the Board of Control. English influ- 
ence is probably more predominant than ever, by reason of the social 
changes which have in a great degree broken up the superstitions of the 
higher classes. Young men of rank and wealth are educated at English 
colleges or in London, while English governesses are admitted even to the 
secluded apartments of Hindu women. The cruel and degrading observ- 
ances of the old religion are losing their prevalence among the educated 
classes; and even the division of castes promises to give way before the 
demands of modern civilized life. Eailways, telegraphs, newspapers, and 
even common schools have begun to bring the great mass of the Hindu 
population into community of ideas with the western world. 

190. Within a century Great Britain has established another dominion 
in the East — more extensive and perhaps yet to be more important than 
that of India itself. The shores of the vast island, or rather continent, 
of Australia were explored by the Dutch early in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, but its interior was unknown to Europeans until after 

A D IVV 

Captain Cook's visit to its south coast had suggested the 
possibility of finding room and sustenance upon its broad unfilled acres 
for the surplus, and especially the criminal, population of Great Britain. 
In January, 1788, a fleet of eleven ships bearing a thousand persons, 
mostly convicts, arrived at Sydney Cove, in what has been pronounced 
the finest harbor in the world. Having survived the perils resulting 
from the loss of a store-ship, and the consequent scarcity of food, the 
colony began to flourish, though its wretched and disorderly elements 
seemed to afford a most unpromising foundation for a new state. The 
labor of the settlers belonged to the government; for their crimes had 
forfeited all civil privileges. These felons, however, were useful pioneers; 
for they cleared the wildernesses, made roads, built bridges, and con- 
structed many other public works which lightened the tasks of the free 
settlers. Some of the early governors lacked the wisdom and benevo- 
lence which their difficult task required ; but under the humane admin- 



AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. 435 

istration of Governor Macquarie (A. D. 1810-1821) the convicts made 
rapid advances toward reformation. Many who had been driven into 
crime by the cruel pressure of want, in the overcrowded cities of Eng- 
land, gladly embraced the opportunity to lead a better life, and some 
of these were even chosen to magistracies in the colony. 

191. The thirty years following Governor Macquarie's resignation were 
marked by a great increase in the number of free colonists. Australian 
wool had been found equal to the finest fleeces of Germany or Spain, 
and the flocks of sheep could already be numbered by millions. The 
transportation of convicts both to Australia and Van Diemen's Land was 
discontinued ; but thousands of the honest poor were aided by the gov- 
ernment to emigrate, and so many persons of character and wealth were 
induced to colonize by the increased facilities of travel and the hope of 
gain, that the population increased more than tenfold. The original 
colony of New South Wales was divided, Victoria being set off" on the 
south and Queensland on the north, while Van Diemen's Land and South 
and West Australia have also been organized at different times under 
distinct governments. 

192. The third period of Australian history was marked by the dis- 
covery of gold in the south-eastern provinces. May, 1851. At first the 
wild excitement threatened the ruin of the colonies; for flocks, herds, 
and farms were abandoned, and food became scarcely procurable at fam- 
ine prices. Ships in port were deserted by oflBcers and seamen; all regu- 
lar industries ceased for a time, but the consequent peril and distress at 
length brought people to their senses. Society was reorganized ; security 
returned, and the throngs of settlers drawn from foreign parts added to 
the commercial prosperity of the country. Melbourne, the capital of 
Victoria, though founded so lately as 1837, now numbers nearly 200,000 
inhabitants and has become the seat of a university. Sydney, the older 
capital of New South Wales, though outstripped in population by the 
rapid growth of its rival, has also a university, and is the seat of the 
metropolitan bishopric. Railroads and telegraphs are multiplying year 
by year; and a submarine cable unites Australia and Van Diemen's 
Land — now ofiicially called Tasmania — to London. 

193. The British possessions in the Eastern Hemisphere have been 
increased of late years by the formation of eight colonies in New Zea- 
land. The three islands composing the group so called, cover more space 
than England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales; while in richness of soil, 
healthfulness of climate, and grandeur and variety of scenery they are 
unsurpassed by any country in the world. The first European settle- 
ments in New Zealand were made by deserters from whale-ships visiting 
the South Pacific. The fine timber of its forests attracted more perma- 
nent settlers ; and English missionaries from 1814 introduced Christianity 



436 MODERN HISTORY. 

and the elements of civilization among the Maoris, or native New Zea- 
landers. Cannibalism and all the worst features of heathenism speedily- 
disappeared, and at present nearly all the Maoris are nominally Christian. 
Most of them can read and write, some are even highly educated, and 
newspapers are published in their native language. 

194. In 1840 the chiefs of the two principal islands acknowledged the 
supremacy of the queen of England. But disputes concerning the title 
to lands occasioned a four years' war, A. D. 1843-1847; and hostilities 
have been renewed at intervals within the last ten years. The intelli- 
gence of the Maoris, their skillful use of fire-arms and their knowledge 
of inaccessible mountain-fastnesses make them dangerous enemies; but 
their numbers are rapidly diminishing, and at no distant day the popu- 
lation will doubtless be wholly European. The islands are rich in coal, 
copper, iron, and gold. 

195. Another English settlement in the eastern seas is wholly OAving 
to private enterprise. Mr. James Brooke with his own yacht explored 
the coast of Borneo in 1838, and formed the project of civilizing its sav- 
age tribes, as well as of clearing its rivers and bays of the pirates who 
preyed upon the commerce of the Indian archipelago. Finding the Eajah 
of Sarawak engaged in a war with his subjects, he aided in putting down 
the rebellion, and so gained the confidence of the Sultan of Borneo that 
he was intrusted with the government of the province. The natives were 
surprised and conciliated by a wiser and more beneficent rule than they 
had ever yet experienced. With the aid of a British frigate and her 
boats, Mr. Brooke waged a war of extermination upon the pirates; and 
rendered such service to the commerce of that region that the home- 
government appointed him its regent in Borneo. In 1847 the neighbor- 
ing small island of Labuan was added to his dominion, forming an im- 
portant English naval station in those distant seas, especially since the 
discovery of great deposits of coal. 

E/E C.A.I=ITT:7Ij7^TI03Sr. 

English East India Company, chartered for purposes of trade, becomes engaged in na- 
tive wars and lays the foundation of a great British dominion. Decline of the Mogul 
Empire; independence of its parts. The French train Sepoys to serve in their armies; 
capture Madras and Arcot. Clive recovers and defends Arcot; recaptures Calcutta, and 
overthrows Surajah Dowlah at Plassy ; becomes Governor of Bengal. Warren Hastings, 
Governor-General, conquers Hyder Ali ; is impeached for extortion and oppression. Wars 
■with Tippoo Saib, with Mahrattas, Goorkas, and Pindarries end in favor of the English. 
Singapore founded. Exclusive rights of the Company expire. War with China occasioned 
by the opium trade, terminates in cession of Hong Kong and opening of five other ports 
to the English. Disastrous war with the Afghans. Conquest of the Sikhs. Annexation 
of Oude. Mutiny of the Sepoys and rebellion of Hindu people. Massacres at Delhi and 
Cawnpore. Siege and relief of Lucknow. Death of Havelock. Government of India 
assumed by the queen of Great Britain. 

Convict settlements in Australia and Van Diemen's Land, succeeded by free colonies. 



GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 437 

Discovery of gold ; rapid growth of Sydney and Melbourne. Colonizatiou of New Zealand. 
Maoris Christianized. Their wars with the whites. Mineral wealth of the country. Set- 
tlement and improvement of Borneo. EngUsh coaling station at Labuan. 

American Affairs. 

196. The forty years following the Peace of 1814 with Great Britain 
were to the United States a period of material growth and prosperity, 
such as no other country probably has ever known. Famines in Ger- 
many in 1816 and 1817 gave an impulse to emigration; and from that 
time onward an ever increasing current has set toward the American 
ports from the European continent and the British islands. Those who, 
by reason of the frequent wars, the oppressive military systems, or the 
overcrowded population of the old world, were placed at a disadvantage 
in the struggle for life, found here an ample field for enterprise ; and 
their labor was of inestimable value in developing the resources of the 
new continent. The Erie Canal, which in 1826 connected the Hudson 
with the Great Lakes, brought the inexhaustible grain-fields of the Mis- 
sissippi basin nearer to the hungry multitudes of Europe. The use of 
steam for transportation on land, rivers, and even oceans, is drawing the 
whole world into a community of interests ; but nowhere have its eifects 
been m!ore important than in the vast extent of the American Eepublic. 
The magnetic telegraph — largely an American invention — has annihi- 
lated the barriers opposed by space to the communication of thought ; 
and its greatest triumjih was reached when in 1858 a cable, laid under 
the waters of the North Atlantic, united the two hemispheres. The first 
cable failed to transmit messages after a few months ; but a second, laid 
in 1866, has been a perfect success. Since then submarine telegraphs in 
successful working have established instant communication between the 
remotest regions of the globe. 

197. The general peace of the United States was hardly interrupted 
by the wars with the Sacs of the north-western frontier or the Seminoles 
of Florida; though the latter, protected by their dense and noxious 
everglades, were subdued only by a seven years' contest. Florida had 
been ceded by Spain in 1819, upon the United States undertaking to pay 
the debts of the Spanish government to American citizens, and to re- 
linquish their claims to Texas, which on account of the colony of La 
Salle (Book IV., § 130) had been regarded by the French as part of 
Louisiana. In 1822, Mexico became finally independent of Spain, and 
after a series of revolutions, adopted a federal constitution modeled upon 
that of the more northern republic. This constitution was abolished in 
1833 by the President Santa Anna; and the people of Texas, many of 
whom were immigrants from the United States, thereupon declared their 
separation from Mexico. War followed, in which Santa Anna was taken 



438 MODERN HISTORY. 

prisoner and compelled to acknowledge the independence of Texas, A. D. 
1836. This republic then sought admission into the United States, but 
for eight years it was refused. In 1844, by electing President Polk, the 
Americans were understood as giving their vote for the annexation 
of Texas, which accordingly took place by act of Congress, the following 
year. 

198. Upon receiving news of this transaction, the Mexican government 
withdrew its minister from Washington, and prepared for war. General 
Taylor, on the other hand, occupied Texas with an "American" army, 
gained several victories over superior numbers of Mexicans, and, crossing 

the Rio Grande, took by siege and storm the strong city 

Aug., 1846. > J b i=, J 

of Monterey. General Kearney, meanwhile, with only 
1,800 men, captured Santa Fe and took possession of the whole province 
of New Mexico ; then pushing across the continent with a squad of cav- 
alry, aided Commodore Stockton in the capture of San Gabriel, which 
completed the conquest of California. This had been partly effected by 
Captain Fremont, who, with a corps of engineers, had been engaged in 
exploring a new route to Oregon when the war broke out. The brilliant 
victory of General Taylor at Buena Vista, with the conquest by Colonel 
Doniphan of the province of Chihuahua, established the power of the 
United States over northern Mexico. Two weeks later, General Scott, 
landing at Vera Cruz, took by storm the strong castle of San Juan de 
UUoa and soon afterward began the toilsome ascent from the coast to 
the capital. Santa Anna awaited him with 12,000 men in the pass of 
Cerro Gordo, but was defeated and put to flight, leaving several impor- 
tant cities and fortresses to fall into the hands of the Americans. Pro- 
ceeding with his march, Scott encountered, at the entrance to the plateau 
of the City of Mexico, another and larger army which Santa Anna had 
with great energy gathered to oppose his progress. This also was de- 
feated in the battles of Contreras and Cherubusco ; and the storming of 
Molino del Eey and the castle of Chapultepec compelled the surrender 
of the capital. 

199. Santa Anna fled the country. A treaty of peace at Guadalupe 

Hidalgo fixed the boundaries between the two Eepublics at 
Feb., 1848. * ^ 

the Eio Grande and the Eio Gila; but as a partial com- 
pensation for the vast territory ceded by Mexico, "the United States 
agreed to pay fifteen millions of dollars and assume the debts of the 
Mexican government to American citizens. Toward the end of the war, 
gold was discovered in a river bed of California. The deposit was soon 
found to be extremely rich, and a tide of immigration set in from every 
part of the civilized world. The lawless character of many of the ad- 
venturers had an unfavorable effect in the formation of the new society ; 
but " vigilance committees " of the best citizens undertook the preserva- 



CAUSES OF DISUNION. 439 

tion of order. San Francisco, from an obscure Spanish " mission," became 
a prosperous city and the metropolis of the Pacific coast. 

200. The enormous extension of territory gained by the United States 
gave a new impulse to forces within their limits which already tended 
to disunion. The people of the south and west were engaged in agri- 
culture, those of the north-east mainly in commerce and manufactures. 
The former favored free trade, which secured the best market for their 
products ; the latter desired to impose heavy duties on foreign merchan- 
dise, in order to "protect" their own fabrics. These conflicting interests 
bad already embittered the theoretical discussion of state and national 
rights; the south insisting on the independence of the several states, the 
north, on the centralization of power in the federal government, as a 
guarantee of peace and the maintenance of a dignified attitude toward 
foreign nations. As early as 1832, South Carolina, asserting her sovereign 
rights, had attempted to " nullify " an act of Congress concerning the 
tarifi*. The firmness of President Jackson, and a compromise, accepted 
by Congress on the motion of Henry Clay of Kentucky, averted the 
danger for a time. 

201. The chief fire-brand of discord was negro slavery, which prevailed 
in the states south of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers, while it had been 
abolished, so far as it ever existed, in the north. With regard to their 
own institutions, the rights of the several states were fully recognized, 
but upon the question of introducing slavery into newly acquired terri- 
tories, violent differences arose. On the admission of Missouri in 1821,. a 
law was passed limiting the future extension of that institution to regions 
south of 36° 30^ north latitude. California now asked admission to the 
Union with a constitution prohibiting slavery. Again a compromise was 
proposed by Mr. Clay and accepted by Congress, but without allaying 
the general discontent. California was admitted as a free state. The 
question of slavery in the remainder of the territories acquired from 
Mexico was left to their inhabitants whenever a state constitution should 
be adopted. In 1854, the same policy was extended to the two territories 
of Kansas and Nebraska, which had been part of the Louisiana Purchase ; 
the "Missouri Compromise" being thus repealed. Hence arose a violent 
struggle for the possession of Kansas by actual settlement — ended after 
six years by the adoption of a free constitution. 

202. The line between North and South became deeper than ever 
in 1860, when among four candidates for the Presidency, Abraham Lin- 
coln received the electoral votes of all but one of the free states. A 
plan cherished for thirty years by a few southern leaders was now put 
in execution. In December, 1860, a convention in South Carolina de- 
clared the secession of that state from the American Union. Its example 
was followed within a few months by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 



440 MODERN HISTORY. 

Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Ten- 
nessee. Before the last four states had formally joined the movement, 
the "Secessionists" in convention at Montgomery, Alabama, 
had elected Mr. Jefferson Davis to be their President, and 
had organized a government for the "Confederate States of North Amer- 
ica." Several heads of the new departments had held high positions in 
the Federal Union, and had used their official authority to scatter its 
army to remote frontiers and its navy to the most distant seas, while 
they transferred great stores of arms to southern arsenals. Added to this, 
from the different constitution of society north and south, a greater num- 
ber in the latter had sovight commands in the army and navy ; so that 
the South had at first an immense advantage in her highly trained 
officers, many of whom took the part of their native states against the 
federal government. Such was the condition of affairs when Abraham 
Lincoln, reaching the capital by a secret journey to elude a plot for his 
detention or assassination at Baltimore, pledged himself by his inaugural 
oath to the most difficult task ever assumed by man — to "preserve,, 
protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." 

203. "Within six weeks Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor was taken 
by the Confederates. War thus begun, the President called for 75,000 
men and an extra session of Congress. The confederate government 
issued letters of marque to all privateers who would prey upon federal 
commerce ; the President, in return, declared the southern ports in a state 
of blockade. The summer of 1861 was disastrous to the Federals, but 
with unabated energy Congress voted half a million of men and five 
hundred millions of dollars for the prosecution of the war. The Con- 
federates were sustained by the hope of active alliance with England 
and France, encouraged by their recognition as belligerents by those 
powers, and by the shelter afforded to their privateers. In November, 
1861, Messrs. Mason and Slidell, their envoys to England and France, 
were seized on board the British mail-steamer Trent and conveyed as 
prisoners to the United States; but the government at Washington dis- 
avowed the act and surrendered them upon the demand of the English 
embassador. 

204. Late in 1861 the capture of Confederate works at Hatteras Inlet, 
Port Royal Entrance, and Tybee Island gave to the Federals a long line 
of sea-coast. In 1862 an important series of victories opened to them the 
towns and forts on the Mississippi as far south as Vicksburg ; and in 
April New Orleans was taken by the fleet of Commodore Farragut, ac- 
companied by an army under General Butler, who took military possession 
of the city. The fiercest fighting of this year was in Virginia, where two 
movements toward Richmond were repulsed in a long and terrible series 
of battles which have never been surpassed in the numbers engaged or 



CIVIL WAR IN AMERICA. 441 

in the sacrifice of life. Washington, too, was threatened, and Maryland 
was invaded by Lee ; but he was defeated at South Mountain and at 
Antietam, and compelled to evacuate Harper's Ferry. At the beginning 
of the war. President Lincoln had declared that he had neither the right 
nor the disposition to alter the domestic institutions of the southern 
states. But in withdrawing from the Union, the seceding states had re- 
linquished their rights to the protection of the federal constitutioil. On 
the first day of 1863, all persons held to servitude in those states were 
declared free and invited to enter the federal armies or fleets. 

205. The first four days of July, 1863, were the turning point in the 
war. A great invading army under General Lee was defeated in a three 
days' battle at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and pursued into Virginia. On 
July 4, Vicksburg surrendered to General Grant; four days later, Port 
Hudson, the last remaining post on the Mississippi, likewise yielded, and 
the great river was open from its source to the Gulf. In September the 
federal army under Eosecrans was defeated and shut up for two months 
in Chattanooga in south-eastern Tennessee. It was relieved by Grant, 
who in three days' hard fighting drove General Bragg from his strong 
positions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Eidge. The exhaustion 
of war was now most severely felt by the southern people, whose ports 
were closed, and whose available resources had never been as many and 
various as those of the north. The United States, on the other hand, 
were burdened with a debt nearly half as great as that of Great Britain 
which had been accumulating two hundred years — differing, however, 
from the English debt in having for its security the unmeasured and 
inexhaustible resources of a comparatively new continent. 

206. Appreciating the situation, the people of the north made vigor- 
ous preparation for the final conflict. Grant received the title of Lieu- 
tenant-General with the command of all the armies of the Union. A 
simultaneous forward movement was made in May, 1864, by the army of 
the Potomac toward the James, and by Sherman from Chattanooga to the 
Atlantic. The former, by the tremendous Battles of the Wilderness and 
a series of flanking movements, crowded the army of Lee backward 
upon Eichmond and Petersburg, which were both besieged by the federal 
forces. The Confederates were able to repulse all direct attacks upon 
the towns; but their railway connections were cut off and they were 
enclosed in an ever narrowing circle. General Early, marching down 
the Shenandoah Valley, attempted a counter movement upon Washing- 
ton, but he was driven back, and the valley laid waste to prevfent its 
affording supplies. Sherman, meanwhile, by several hard-fought battles 
had advanced to Atlanta, which he took by two months' siege, and then 
swept through Georgia to the sea. Savannah surrendered, December 21. 
The Alabama, the Georgia, and the Florida, all English-built Confederate 



442 MODERN HISTORY. 

cruisers, were captured this year, to the great advantage of federal 
commerce. 

207. The reelection of President Lincoln in November, 1864, expressed 
the unchanging resolution of the north, and the campaign of 1865 opened 
with still greater disparity of forces. Sherman moved into South Caro- 
lina, and by dividing the confederate armie-s, compelled Charleston and 
Columbia to surrender on the same day. The United States forces were 
now concentrated about the army of Lee. After a defeat at Five 
Forks, the Confederate Government took flight from Richmond, which 
was soon occupied by the Union troops. Lee's army, marching south- 
ward, was compelled to surrender near Appomattox Court House. 

208. The war was ended, and April 14, the fourth anniversary of its' 
beginning, was appointed as a day of general thanksgiving. Late at night 
its joy was turned into mourning by news of the assassination of the Pres- 
ident. But this crime did not avail to destroy the peace so long desired 
and happily restored. The vice-president, Andrew Johnson, took the oath 
of the highest ofiice within a few hours of Mr. Lincoln's death, and all 
the operations of government went on without interruption. 

209. The remaining forces of the Confederacy were surrendered within 
a few weeks ; its president became a prisoner. Four of its eleven states, 
having been occupied in part by federal forces, had already formed gov- 
ernments approved by the Congress at Washington. The rest repealed 
their ordinances of secession, and accepted an amendment in the Federal 
Constitution prohibiting "slavery or involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime." Two subsequent amendments extended all the 
rights of citizenship — even to the holding of civil offices — to the persons 
lately released from slavery. 

210. Thus ended the great civil war — one of the most destructive of 
life and property that history is compelled to record. No fewer than 
600,000 persons are supposed to have perished in the two great armies; 
and if all those disabled and maimed for life were added, the victims 
would probably number a million. The federal government emerged 
from the contest with a debt of nearly three thousand millions of dollars, 
which probably did not represent one-half of the expenses of the war, 
shared as these were by states, counties, towns, and individual persons, 
and aggravated by the immense destruction of property by armies and 
navies, and the withdrawal of three millions of persons, north and south, 
from the productive industries. 

211'. The claims of the United States against Great Britain for shelter 
and encouragement afforded to confederate cruisers, threatened the peace 
of the two countries, but in 1871 the treaty of Washington referred these 
claims to a Board of Arbitration composed of five commissioners from 
neutral nations, who met accordingly at Geneva in June, 1872. The 



INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA AND JAPAN. 443 

damages awarded by the Board were promptly acknowledged and pro- 
vision made for their payment by the British government. 

212. The only attractive feature of the war is found in the efficient 
efforts of private liberality to relieve suffering. First among organiza- 
tions was the Sanitary Commission, whose expenditures amounted to 
millions, and whose faithful agents were found in every camp and on 
every battle-field, carrying to the wounded or sick of both armies com- 
forts which it was impossible for the government to afford. Medical 
science surpassed itself in the construction of ambulances and the inven- 
tion of the most skillful methods of alleviating distress ; and so well was 
this appreciated in Europe, that a noble emulation led to an Interna- 
tional Convention at Geneva for abating the barbarities of 

war. Most of the great powers agreed to concede neutral 
rights to every house in which the wounded were sheltered and to all 
persons employed in attending them. The sufferers themselves while 
disabled are regarded as neutrals. This humane agreement, so far as it 
has been observed, has greatly alleviated the miseries of a state of war. 

213. The progress of the United States since the Civil War is without 
a parallel in history. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867, and, 
in addition to this country and the District of Columbia, the Union now 
consists of thirty-eight states and nine territories. Several submarine 
cables afford instant communication A^■ith the Old World and South 
America, while numerous steamship lines carry an immense traffic over 
both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The interior of the country is 
crossed with a network of railroads, aggregating about 100,000 miles in 
extent, and several lines now extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
China and Japan are in friendly commercial relations with the United 
States, and the great influx of immigrants to the latter from China has ne- 
cessitated special legislation in order to check it. The population has grown 
from 31,000,000 in 1860, to over 50,000,000 in 1880, and the United States 
now occupies the first place in manufacturing among the nations of the 
globe.. The progress of civilization is steadily crowding the Indians from 
the most desirable agricultural lands to poorer reservations. This fact 
and the dishonesty of Indian agents have caused much bitter feeling, and 
have led to two notable outbreaks : the Modoc war, in 1873, in which Gen. 
Canby was treacherously killed ; and the Sioux war, in 1876, when Gen, 
Custer and his entire command were destroyed. The Indian question is 
still an unsettled problem of American statesmanship. 

The United States largely populated by immigration from Europe; their prosperity in- 
creased hy railways and telegraphs. Wars with native tribes. Texas secedes from the 
Mexican Eepublic and seeks admision to the United States. Its annexation causes a war 
with Mexico. Victories of Generals Taylor, Kearney, and Scott. City of Mexico capt^ 



444 MODERN HISTORY. 

ured. Territories of New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, aud Colorado added 
to the United States. Gold discovered in California. 

Conflicting interests in the United States. Disruption averted for a time by compromise. 
Disputes concerning the extension of slavery. California admitted into the Union and 
the Missouri Compromise repealed. Contest for Kansas. Election of Abraham Lincoln. 
Secession of South Carolina and ten other states. Confederate States organized with Jef- 
ferson Davis as their president. Surrender of Fort Sumter. Blockade of the southern 
ports. Recognition of the Confederates by England and France. Capture and sun-ender 
of their envoys to Europe. Victories of Union forces on the Atlantic and Mississippi. 
Capture and military occupation of New Orleans. Richmond and Washington alternately 
threatened. Proclamation of freedom to slaves in the seceded states. Union victories at 
Gettysburg, Vicksburg, and Port Hudson ; opening of the Mississippi. Defeat of Federals 
at Chickamauga ; siege of Chattanooga — raised by Grant who becomes Lieutenant-General. 
His march to Richmond ; defeat of Early in the Shenandoah Valley. Sherman's capture 
of Atlanta and Savannah, Charleston and Columbia. Reelection of President Lincoln ; 
surrender of Richmond and of Lee's army. Assassination of the President ; inauguration 
of Johnson. Reconstruction of the Union. Settlement of "Alabama Claims" against 
Great Britain by arbitration at Geneva. American organizations for relief of the wounded, 
imitated in Europe by International League. 

Progress of the United States since the Civil War. Facilities for foreign and domestic com- 
merce. Population and manufactures. Indian difficulties. 



Decline and Fall of the French Empire. 

214. The first two years of the American War witnessed an invasion 
of the neighboring Eepublic of Mexico by the combined forces of Eng- 
land, France, and Spain. Its main purpose was to exact payment for 
debts and reparation for injuries inflicted upon subjects of those nations 
during a civil war of three years' standing; but the emperor of the 
French had a further aim — to set up a sort of protectorate of the "Latin 
Race" in America — which was encouraged by the apparently hopeless 
disruption of the United States. Hence the French commissioner refused 
to meet those of England, Spain, and Mexico, when the latter had pro- 
posed to settle the questions in dispute by peaceful conference, and in- 
sisted on marching to the capital. The alliance was therefore broken ofi", 
and the English and Spanish troops were recalled; while the French, 
joined by some of the revolutionary Mexican forces, declared war against 
the government of President Juarez. They were reinforced by severaj 
regiments under General Forey who assumed the command ; and having 
taken Puebla by siege, occupied the capital in June, 1863. Here a 
Council of Notables, under a controlling French influence, declared in 
favor of a hereditary empire as the future government of Mexico ; and 
subsequently chose Maximilian, a brother of the Austrian emperor, to be 
their "Sovereign. 

215. Monterey became the capital of the republican government under 
Juarez. The emperor Maximilian and the empress Carlotta entered the 
City of Mexico in June, 1864. War went on with varying success be- 
tween the conflicting governments ; several important towns being taken 



END OF THE MEXICAN EMPIRE. 445 

by the Republicans. In 1866, the interests of Napoleon III. and the 
urgency of the United States, required the withdrawal of his forces from 
Mexico, and he advised Maximilian to seek his own safety by abdication. 
The Austrian prince refused, however, to abandon those Mexican leaders 
who had risked their lives in his cause ; though, as the event proved, one 
at least was animated by less honorable motives. The last of the French 
troops departed in March, 1867. Two months later, the town of Quere- 
taro, where the emperor was then residing, was betrayed to the Juarists 
by General Lopez, the commandant appointed by Maximilian. The un- 
fortunate emperor was shot by order of Juarez, June 19. Mexico, though 
constantly disturbed, has ever since maintained its republican constitution. 

216. The rapid and brilliant movement of the Seven Weeks' War had 
disappointed Napoleon, while it awakened uneasiness in France. The 
emperor had long foreseen the contest ; but he had expected that Prussia 
would require his assistance and would buy it with the provinces on the 
left of the Ehine, which he chose to designate as the "natural boundary" 
of France. His minister at Berlin indeed put in a claim to the Ehine 
provinces as compensation to France for the increased power of Prussia; 
but on Bismarck's reply that the claim was "inadmissible" it was im- 
mediately withdrawn. Count Benedetti then presented a scheme for the 
annexation of Belgium to France — the latter in return to oppose no 
obstacle to the subjection of all southern Germany to Prussia. This 
paper, in the handwriting of the French embassador, was laid aside for 
future use by the far-seeing Chancellor. Napoleon then attempted a 
quiet purchase of Luxembourg from the king of Holland, who was always 
in want of money, and to whom the province was of little value. Un- 
fortunately for the scheme, Luxembourg belonged to the North German 
Confederation and was garrisoned by Prussian troops. Germany pro- 
tested, and the bargain was abandoned ; for though a party in France 
clamored for war, the emperor knew that a complete rearming of his troops 
was necessary before he could meet the Prussians in the field. The war 
of 1866 had clearly shown the superiority of the breech-loading fire-arms, 
which the French military officers had not then decided to adopt. 

217. A revolution in Spain hastened the crisis which was to change 
the whole states-system of Europe. Isabella II. had reigned as a consti- 
tutional sovereign since 1843. Her government, if so it could be called, 
had been carried on by an ever-shifting succession of generals and fa- 
vorites; and civil war had come to be almost the normal condition of the 
country. In 1868, Gonzales Bravo came to the head of affairs. He sum- 
marily arrested and banished seven of the most distinguished generals, 
as well as the Duke and Duchess of Montpensier, the latter of whom, it 
will be remembered (§ 138), was sister of the queen. Rebellion instantly 
broke out in the army, where each of the banished generals had adher- 



446 MODERN HISTORY. 

ents, and the queen's troops were defeated in the field. She herself had 
repaired to St. Sebastian under pretense of sea-bathing, but really to be 
near the French frontier in order to consult her ally, the emperor, who 
was at Bayonne. Upon news of her disaster she crossed the border and 
was assigned a residence at Pau. A provisional government was organ- 
ized at Madrid, and the Bourbon dynasty was declared at an end. Ser- 
rano, one of the banished generals, was placed at the head of the new 
ministry. 

218. A few of the best men in Spain desired a republic ; but a major- 
ity preferred a liberal monarchy, and then followed a search for a king. 
Candidates were easy to find. The Duke of Montpensier pressed his 
claims with money and influence. A grandson of Don Carlos, the queen's 
uncle (§ 137), revived the old Salic theory, and announced himself to 
Spain and the courts of Europe as King Charles the Seventh. The 
French imperial party urged the young Prince of Asturias, then eleven 

years of age, through whom it expected to govern Spain. 

His mother abdicated in his favor, but the Spanish nation 
refused to receive him. The king of Portugal declined the offered crown 
both for himself and his brother. The choice of the Spaniards then fell 
upon Prince Frederic of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, younger brother of 
the Prince of Roumania, and a very distant relative of the king of Prus- 
sia. The French court made no objection to this choice ; but when, in 
the summer of 1870, it became known that the invitation had been trans- 
ferred to Frederic's eldest brother, Leopold, the war-party at Paris sud- 
denly denounced his candidacy as a Prussian aggression. 

219. For ten years the French emperor had been balancing two oppo- 
site theories of government. Ccesarism, or imperialism, through which he 
had personally undertaken to " guarantee order to France," could only 
be maintained by a continual succession of victories in war, or at least 
by a commanding attitude in the diplomacy of Europe. Opposed to the 
theory of "personal government" was the English system by which the 
ministry are held responsible for all the royal acts, and are removable at 
any time by a "vote of want of confidence" on the part of the legislative 
body. The decline of the emperor's health gave strength to the anti- 
imperialists; to conciliate them a committee of the Senate was charged 
with the preparation of a new representative constitution, which was to 

be promulgated on the centennial of the birth of Napoleon 

Aug. 15, 1869. f & r 

I. Brilliant celebrations had been appointed for this occa- 
sion; but the emperor's illness, the absence of the empress and her son 
in Corsica, and above all the death of Marshal Niel, Aug. 13, cast a 
gloom over the day which accorded well with the prophecies that the 
year 1869 was to be fatal to the power of the Bonapartes. Under the 
new constitution Emil Ollivier was commanded to form a parliamentary 



OPENING OF FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 447 

ministry ; and it comprised several men of high character who had been 
opponents of the coiq) d'etat and of the imperial goverjiment. The new 
system was submitted to a plebiscite, and as usual a great majority voted 
yes, though one-sixth of the army were opposed. It had been industri- 
ously declared by the official journals that the "Empire is peace," and 
that the consequence of a negative vote would be a war for the Rhine 
frontier. The reverse was true. 

220. In vain the king of Prussia assured the French government that 
he knew nothing of the candidacy of Prince Leopold ; and that he had 
no power to command or forbid the prince's acceptance of the Spanish 
crown. In vain Leopold himself withdrew his name, as soon as he heard 
of the excitement at Paris. The French embassador, Benedetti, de- 
manded from the king an apology for having permitted the candidate- 
ship, and a pledge that it should never again occur. At this crisis the 
secret proposal of Benedetti in 1867 was published by Bismarck (see § 
216), and occasioned great excitement throughout Europe ; especially in 
Great Britain, whose government had guaranteed the independence of 
Belgium. The English Foreign Office demanded from Napoleon III. the 
most ample securities for his observance of Belgian neutrality in the 
struggle which was too evidently impending. On the very 

day of Leopold's resignation, French troops began their 
march toward the Ehine. On the 15th, war was declared. Nothing could 
have put so effective a finishing touch to German nationality. Whatever 
jealousy of Prussia had existed in southern Germany was silenced; 
Bavaria, Wirtemberg, and Baden put their armies at the disposal of 
King William. 

221. The Crown Prince of Prussia assumed command of the German 
army at Spires, while Napoleon III., having named the empress Eugenie 
regent during his absence, repaired with his son to the army at Metz. 
Only when the French van-guard stood on the German border, did the 
generals take a just estimate of their resources. There was a great de- 
ficiency of horses ; and of those actually with the army great numbers 
had been let out for months to farmers and were unfit for service. Pro- 
posals for feeding the army were only received on the 28th of July. The 
number of men by actual count was less than half the nominal strength 
of the divisions. In short the French nation had been "plunged into 
war with not one single arm of the naval or military service really pre- 
pared;" and a French officer has declared from personal knowledge that 
" whole divisions went into action in a literally famishing condition." 
On the other hand the Prussian army was drilled, fed, and equipped to 
the highest degree of efficiency, and when joined by the South German 
forces had more than twice the numbers of its opponents. Its highly 
trained officers were more familiar with the roads and deep-cleft, narrow 



448 MODERN HISTORY. 

valleys of north-eastern France than were the Frencn themselves; for a 
minute study of European topography was a most important part of the 
"war-play" of their military schools. It is not surprising that the war 
was an almost uninterrupted succession of German victories. 

222. The first action was an attack (Aug. 2) upon a small Prussian 
outpost on the heights above Saarbriicken ; only remarkable from the 
presence of the French Prince Imperial to receive his " baptism of fire," 
and for the first serious trial of the mitrailleuse, a new invention in field- 
artillery, from which tremendous results were expected. The Prussians 
retired to their next post as soon as the "hail-storm" of shot became 
inconvenient. On the 4th the French were repulsed from the German 
lines at Weissemburg ; on the 6th, MacMahon was disastrously defeated at 
Worth, and Frossard between Saarbriicken and Forbach. 

223. On this fatal 6th of August, bulletins posted on the Bourse at 
Paris announced the annihilation of the Crown Prince's army and a 
glorious victory to the French. Rumor, swiftly following, not only de- 
clared this a falsehood, but whispered that the ministers had invented it 
for their own private account in order to speculate in the public funds. 
The palace of Ollivier was mobbed by an indignant crowd demanding 
true information from the seat of war. As yet only the defeat at Weis- 
semburg was known, but the next day the disasters at Worth and For- 
bach were also announced. The excitable Parisians were plunged into 
extreme despondency and discontent with the ministry. The empress 
convened the Senate and Corps-Legislatif on the 9th. Ollivier's speech 
was interrupted by a storm of opposition, and his cabinet immediately 
resigned. A new "Ministry of Public Defense" was formed under the 
presidency of Count Palikao. Marshal Lebceuf, commanding under the 
emperor, resigned, and Bazaine was placed at the head of the armies. 
He was terribly defeated, however, before Metz, again less decisively at 
Mars-la-Tour, and most completely at Gravelotte (Aug. 14, 16, 18), and 
was shut up in Metz by a superior German force. 

224. Strasbourg had meanwhile been invested by Badenese troops 
aided by the Prussian landivehr or militia. Napoleon, no longer com- 
manding except in name, joined the army which MacMahon was concen- 
trating at Chalons, either to cover Paris, now threatened by the Crown 
Prince of Prussia, or to march to the relief of Bazaine. The latter 
movement was chosen ; and the effort of the Germans was then to entrap 
the French between the Meuse and the Belgian frontier, which they could 
only cross by surrendering their arms (see § 220). The great decisive 

combat took place at Sedan. The French were completely 
Sept. 1, 1870. ^ 

surrounded and driven into the town, where the whole army 

by a capitulation, Sept. 2, became prisoners of war. The emperor, by 

letter, surrendered himself to the king of Prussia, and was assigned a resi- 



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SURRENDER OF NAPOLEON III. 449 

dence at Willielmsholie in Hesse Cassel, where his uncle Jerome had lived 
as king of Westphalia. The fortress of Sedan, with 70 mitrailleuses, 480 
cannon, 10,000 horses, and 108,000 men fell into German hands. 

225. In the terror which reigned at Paris, General Trochu, an honest 
and able soldier, but no favorite with the imperialists, was appointed 
governor of the city, and zealously prepared for its defense. The outer 
moat was filled with water and a fleet of gun-boats was collected in the 
Seine. The Guard Mobile was drawn in from the provinces; sailors and 
9,000 custom-house officials were armed, and with the National Guard 
made a total of 400,000 men. Firemen were telegraphed from the pro- 
vincial cities, and arrived to the number of 60,000, imagining that some 
great conflagration had broken out. The work of provisioning Paris for 
a siege began; 80,000 Germans resident in the city were expelled, and 
the inconvenience and suffering, thus occasioned, aroused that national 
enmity which is the most melancholy result of the war. 

On the announcement of the news from Sedan in the Corps-Legislatif, 
Jules Favre arose and declared that the "Empire had ceased to exist." 
Troops of the National Guard and crowds of people thronged the square 
around the Palais Bourbon, demanding the fall of the Bonapartes. The 
empress regent, deserted by all her domestics but one, fled from the Tuil- 
eries and took refuge with her son in England. A provisional govern- 
ment was formed with Trochu at its head, and with Messrs. Arago, 
Cremieux, Favre, Ferry, Gambetta, and others for its ministers. 

226. The new government would gladly have arranged a peace, to be 
ratified by the French nation as soon as there should be time to consult 
it. But a difficulty had arisen. The king of Prussia had already placed 
Alsace and part of Lorraine under German administration, and demanded 
their permanent cession as the price of peace. The French government 
refused to give up " an inch of its land or a stone of its fortresses," 
though intimating that the fortunes of war might require from it some 
concession in money. M. Thiers, then 73 years of age, made a pilgrim- 
age to the courts of London, St. Petersburg, Vienna, and Florence, asking 
mediation and moral support for France. The sovereigns were reminded 
that the king of Prussia had constantly declared his hostility to be, not 
with the French nation, but with its emperor, who had injured and in- 
sulted him. Now that Napoleon III. had been deposed by the will of 
the people, it was claimed that the cause of war no longer existed. The 
same views were urged by Favre in his interviews with Bismarck at 
Ferrieres, Sept. 18-20 ; but the German armies were already surrounding 
Paris, and the Crown Prince took up his quarters at Versailles on the 
last day of the conference. 

227. The French capital, under Louis Philippe and Napoleon III., had 
become a gigantic fortress, which for size and strength has probably had 

M. H.— 29. 



450 MODERN HISTORY. 

no equal since Babylon. Its walls were thirty-three feet high and 
twenty miles in length, and were surrounded by a moat or ditch forty 
feet in width. Sixteen detached forts formed a girdle of defense at dis- 
tances of several miles from the walls. The reduction of such a place 
taxed all the resources of the art of war, while its defense, embarrassed 
by the necessity of feeding and sheltering two millions of people, ex- 
hausted even French ingenuity and the multiplied inventions of the 
nineteenth century. The underground telegraphs having been cut, intel- 
ligence was only conveyed to the outer world by balloons and carrier- 
pigeons — the latter bearing a single quill containing a scrap of silken 
paper on which had been photographed many thousands of words. M. 
Gambetta, ascending from Paris in a balloon, joined several of his col- 
leagues at Tours, and as Minister of War and the Interior became in fact 
the dictator of four months of the war. The imperial forces had been 
either destroyed, scattered, or shut up in besieged towns. The govern- 
ment at Tours ordered under arms every Frenchman between 20 and 40 
years of age. Garibaldi and his two sons offered themselves to the serv- 
ice of the Republic, and the former was assigned to the command of the 
irregular troops of the Vosges. Cavalry recruits were found even ia the 
free Bedouin bands of the African desert. Eleven camps of instruction 
were formed in various parts of France. The unflinching zeal of the 
French people contradicted the too prevalent belief that the corruption 
of the "Lower Empire" had extended to the heart of the nation. 

228. The fall of Strasbourg, after a bombardment which shattered its 
beautiful Cathedral-towers and destroyed its library, sent a thrill of grief 
and rage throughout France. A month later, Metz, with the whole army 
of Bazaine, including three marshals, fifty generals, 6,000 inferior officers, 
and 173,000 men, with an immense train of artillery, surrendered to the 
Prussians. It had been more than three hundred years a French town 
(Book III., §§ 168, 172). The towns and fortresses of northern France fell 
rapidly into the hands of the Germans. After their victory at Amiens, 
Rouen and the excellent harbor of Dieppe were opened to them. Or- 
leans had already been taken, and recovered by General d'Aurelles de 
Paladines in the battle of Coulmiers. The movement of the victorious 
general for the relief of Paris was thwarted by the advance of Prince 
Frederic Charles, and Orleans was again occupied by German troops. 
The government emigrated from Tours to Bordeaux. Three tremendous 
efforts were made by the army in Paris to break through the investing 
lines, but all were repulsed. 

Both besiegers and besieged suffered severely from the intense cold of 
an uncommonly rigorous winter ; and this . was aggravated in Paris by 
the want of wood, coal, and gas. On the 27th of December the Prussian 
batteries opened fire from the heights of Sevres, Meudon, Clamart, and 



THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 451\ 

Chatillon. Starvation was added to the horrors of bombardment; and, 
nearly five thousand people died every week within the walls. 

229. Meanwhile a great but peaceful change was effected in tho con- 
stitution of Germany. Delegates from Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Baden, and^ 
Hesse Darmstadt were instructed to propose in the North German Diet 
a union of all the states and free cities in a new German Confederation. 
But the events of 1866 had proved this plan inadequate to the wants of 
Germany. King Louis II. of Bavaria cut the Gordian knot by. a letter 
received at Versailles, Dec. 3, in which, after .consultation with his fellow- 
sovereigns and the burgomasters of the free cities, he invited the- king 
of Prussia to assume the title of German Emperor. The North German 
Parliament sent its address of assent and congratulation by the hands o£, 
its president, Herr Simson, who in 1849 hJid been charged with a similar 
embassy to King Frederick William IV. (§ 145.) This time the imperial 
crown was accepted, and in a hall of the palace of Versailles, still re- 
splendent with the magnificence of Louis XIV., King Wil- 

liam I. was solemnly invested with the new dignity. The 
act was announced to the German people in a proclamation which de- 
clared that the king assumed the imperial title from considerations of 
duty to the Fatherland, hoping to deserve the title "Semper Augustus," 
not by conquests in war, but by the blessings and benefits of peace. 

230. Famine had now reduced the fair, proud city of Paris to the 
humiliation of a surrender, and on the night of the 26-27 of January 
the bombardment ceased. The forts of the oute-r circle were surrendered 
with all their stores and munitions ; and unless the war should close within 
a month, the entire army of Paris were to be prisoners. An armistice 
of three weeks gave the French people time to organize a government 
competent to conclude a permanent peace ; but as great hopes were still 
entertained of the relief of Belfort by the army of the East under Bour- 
baki, that department was especially excepted. Writs were issued for the 
election of a Constituent Assembly. The delegation at Bordeaux, by an 
independent decree, declared all persons ineligible who had held any 
official - relation to the Second Empire. This was the act of Gambetta; 
and when the government at Paris, upon the protest of Bismarck, an- 
nulled the decree the Dictator resigned. The choice of representatives 
indicated an overwhelming popular demand for peace. The Assembly 
met at Bordeaux, Feb. 12; a provisional Eepublic was proclaimed, and 
M. Thiers, as the most prominent representative of the peace party, was 
elected its chief Executive by a large majority. 

231. Meanwhile the army of the East had been overwhelmed with 
disasters. Bourbaki, defeated in a three days' battle before Belfort, lost 
his reason, and the command devolved upon General Clinchy. When 
news of the armistice arrived by the telegraph, the exception in the case 



452 MODERN HISTORY. 

of the Department of the East was most unfortunately omitted ; and the 
French general, attempting to open negotiations with Manteuffel, was 
taken at a great disadvantage. No alternative was left but a retreat into 
Switzerland, and this was accomplished during the first four days of 
February, 1871. The wretched train of 85,000 men, worn with fatigue, 
privation, and disease were received with warm hospitality. Deprived 
of their arms and war-materials, they were distributed throughout the 
cantons ; and private charity did more than the governments could have 
done for their relief. 

232. On the 26th of February, preliminaries of peace were signed at 
Versailles. France ceded Alsace and German Lorraine to the new Em- 
pire and agreed to pay five thousand millions of francs as war indemnity. 
All the French troops except i, garrison of 40,000 in Paris retired south 
of the Loire. A detachment of the German army entered Paris, March 
1; but left it on the third. Their departure was followed by a still 
greater calamity than their presence. In the confusion attending the 
close of the siege, some troops of the National Guard, acting without 
orders, seized a great number of cannon and dragged them to the heights 
of Montmartre, where they intrenched themselves and resisted the efibrts 
of General Vinoy to dislodge them. They w^ere joined by troops of the 
line ; and Vinoy withdrew his forces from Paris for the protection of the 
Assembly, which now transferred its sittings from Bordeaux to Versailles. 
The insurgents organized a government at the Hotel de Ville, and are 
henceforth to be known as the Commune. 

233. A conflict of interests had already arisen between the large towns 
and the country districts ; and the Assembly had undertaken to discrim- 
inate in favor of the latter by limiting the freedom of elections in the 
towns. Moreover there was a strong monarchical element in the Assem- 
bly, while the cities universally favored a republic. The Commune at 
Paris declared itself the champion of municipal freedom, and it had the 
sympathy of strong parties in the other towns. But unhappily the best 
men who opposed the Versailles government were overborne by that 
revolutionary element which France has learned by bitter experience to 
dread (§ 140). The worst people seized power and robbed the banks in 
order to obtain means of maintaining themselves by force. The troops 
of the two governments fought for the possession of the forts south of 
Paris; those of the Commune were several times routed with great loss. 
The government at Versailles was compelled to ask permission of the 
Germans to increase its army north of the Loire, and the return of 
French prisoners of war was hastened. The unhappy contest wrought 
greater injury to Paris than had been eflfected by the German shells. 
As victory inclined to the Assembly, the Communists avenged themselves 
for certain defeat by setting fire to the Louvre, the Tuileries, and the 



ROMAN STATES ANNEXED TO ITALY. 453 

Palais Eoyal, and by pulling down the great column of the Place Ven- 
dome, the proudest monument of the First Empire. The venerable 
Archbishop of Paris and other hostages were shot; a number of Domin- 
ican monks were murdered. At length all the forts were in the hands 
of the Versailles government, the insurgents were driven 

Ma,v '^S 1S71 

from their last position in the Cemetery of Pere la Chaise ; 
and the Commune was ended. A terrible vengeance was exacted by the 
Court Martial at Versailles, which ordered multitudes of men and even 
women, convicted of having part in the violent proceedings in Paris, to 
be put to death. 

234. In ten months one empire had fallen, and another, of different 
materials and organized on wholly different principles, had arisen in 
Europe. The kingdom of Italy without having taken any part in the 
general contest, had reaped, perhaps, its most important advantage. Rome 
had been abandoned by its French protectors in August, 1870, and the 
next month it was quietly occupied by the troops of Victor Emmanuel. 
The Pope was confirmed in the possession of the Leonine City (Book I., 
§ 64), and in all his honors and dignities as head of the Roman Church ; 
but the territories formerly under his sovereignty were declared to be 
part of the kingdom of Italy, after a vote of the people had expressed, 
with scarcely a dissentient voice, their desire for annexation. The gov- 
ernment, of the kingdom was transferred to the ancient capital, July 1, 
1871. The death of King Victor Emmanuel, Jan. 9, 1878, at the Quirinal 
Palace, in Rome, was followed within a month by that of Pope Pius IX., 
which ended the longest pontificate on record. Humbert I. succeeded his 
father as king of united Italy, and Cardinal Pecci became Pope Leo XIIL 

235. After the resignation of Prince Leopold (§ 220) the Spanish crown 
was accepted by Amadeo, Duke of Aosta and second son of King Victor 
Emmanuel of Italy. He was crowned, Dec. 30, 1870, and gave his assent 
to a liberal constitution which established civil and religious freedom in 
a nation so long under the curse of despotism. The new reign had con- 
tinued, however, little more than two- years, when Amadeo found the 
diflBiculties of his position, between the party which desired yet greater 
changes and the Carlists, who supported the claims of "King Charles 
VII." (§218), too great for endurance, and suddenly resigned the crown, 
Feb. 11, 1873. A republic was then proclaimed. Its leading spirit was 
Emilio Castelar, an ardent lover of liberty, whose genius and eloquence 
inspired the Cortes; but he was succeeded in the presidency, Feb. 1874, 
by Marshal Serrano, who was understood to form a restoration of the 
Bourbons. Alfonzo XII., late prince of Asturias (§218), was in fact pro- 
claimed before the end of the year, and arrived in Madrid, Jan. 14, 1875. 
The Carlist insurrection was soon put down. The king's second marriage 
with an Austrian princess might seem like a revival of ancient policy 



454 MODERN HISTORY. 

(pp. 143, 321), but it could not bring back the old oppressive system, for 
Austria was already herself a liberal monarchy. Freedom of worship was 
guaranteed to Spain; the Jews, long exiled (pp. 116, 305), were invited 
to return, and a new impulse was felt in the industry and commerce of 
the kingdom. 

236. The French Kepublic, after the resignation of President Thiers 
in 1873, chose for its head Marshal McMahon, the Duke of Magenta 
(pp. 423, 448). He, however, resigned before the expiration of his seven 
years' term, and his place was filled by M. Grevy. Gambetta became 
president of the Chamber of Deputies, and subsequently of the Presi- 
dent's Cabinet. French power has been extended in northern Africa by 
the seizure of the city of Tunis, the fortress and harbor of Sfax, and 
the fort of Kairwan. Though the. French disclaim any intention of per- 
manent conquest, Italy regards their progress with distrust, and a mem- 
ber of the Italian parliament has declared that though Carthage might 
be allowed to rise again, it must not be to the injury of Eome! 

237. The rapid decline of the Turkish power has aroused the rival 
interests of the northern and western nations. Russia desires control of 
the Black Sea; England, a clear path to her possessions in the east; 
Austria, Italy, and France, their share in any redistribution of lands. 
Meanwhile, the Christian subjects of the Porte have endured untold 
brutalities under a government weak for justice and strong only for 
violence and extortion. In May, 1876, the French and German consuls 
at Salonica were murdered by a Turkish mob. Frightful massacres were 
also committed in Bulgaria. Herzegovina was already in revolt. Servia, 
and Montenegro now declared war, with the secret support of Russia; 
the Sultan, Abd-el-Aziz, was deposed and murdered by his servants. A 
conference of six great Powers at Constantinople failed to secure either 
peace or reform, and early in 1877 two Russian armies entered the 
Turkish dominions in Europe and Asia. The Armenian campaign was 
ended by the fall of Kars and the conquest of a large region east and 
south of the Black Sea ; that in the Balkans by the surrender of Plevna 
and the Trojan and Shipka passes. 

238. The Turks, worsted at all points, and with the enemy at the 
gates of their capital, made peace with the Russians by the Treaty of 
San Stef ano. Great Britain refused to abide by its provisions, and by a 
separate agreement established her own protectorate over Asiatic Turkey. 
A Congress of seven* Powers at Berlin, in June and July, 1878, reor- 
ganized the Ottomon dominion in Europe. Roumania and Servia (§ 161) 



* These were Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia and Tur- 
key. Prince Bismarck was president. 



BUSSIAN AFFAIRS. 455 

were made wholly independent. Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia became 
so as to local affairs, but had their princes either appointed or confirmed 
by the Sultan, and were burdened with a yearly tribute to the Porte. 
Bosnia and Herzegovina were added to Austria, Cyprus to Great Britain. 
A Supplementary Conference at Berlin in June, 1880, reminded the 
Sultan that he had not yet executed the promised reforms, and insisted 
on the cession of Dulsigno and its territories to Montenegro. After a 
naval demonstration by the six Powers in the Mediterranean, the latter 
was accomplished. 

239. Great but silent changes were going on in Russia during th.e 
reign of Alexander II. By an imperial ukase of Mafch 2, 1861, 23,000,000 
of serfs were set free and provided with portions of land. The serfs in 
Poland were liberated in 1864, and the next year representative assem- 
blies were summoned to meet in the .several provinces. These tokens of 
liberal tendencies in the government could not, however, satisfy, the de- 
mands of the Nihilists, a secret but powerful association which aims, 
apparently, at the destruction of all authority, civil and religious. Re- 
peated attempts were made upon the life of the Czar, and on the 13th 
of March, 1881, he was killed by the explosion of a bomb-shell under 
his carriage. Five persons were executed for the crime. Alexander III. 
succeeded to his father's throne. 

240. The advance of Russian poweif in Asia by the conquest of Bok- 
hara, Khiva and Khokand, has been jealously watched by Great Britain, 
and, under the premiership of the Earl of Beaconsfield, Afghanistan was 
invaded by a British force from India. Shere Ali, the ruler of the 
country, fled from Cabul, and a new Ameer was proclaimed under 
British influence. The invaders, however, sustained several severe de- 
feats, and the expedition resulted in great cost and little honor. It was 
soon followed by the fall of" the Beaconsfield ministry, and the return 
of Mr. Gladstone to power. 

I1EC.A.I=ITTJIj.A.TI01T. 
French war in Mexico. Maximillian of Austria chosen Emperor. Upon the withdrawal 
of French troops he is defeated and shot at Queretaro. Reestablishment of Republic 
under Juarez. Napoleon III. seeks compensation for aggrandizement of Prussia in Seven 
Weeks' War. Fall of the Spanish Bourbons. Flight of Isabella II. Rival claimants to 
the crown ; Leopold of Hohenzollern accepts it, subjefct to the will of the Spanish people. 
New liberal constitution in France ; Ollivier chief minister. King of Prussia refusing to 
render account to France of Prince Leopold's candidacy, Napoleon declares war. Unpre- 
pared condition of the French army. Its repeated disasters. Riot in Paris upon receipt 
of false intelligence. Palikao succeeds Ollivier. Battle of Sedan results in captivity of 
Napoleon III. and his army. Trochu governor of Paris; preparations for its defense. 
Flight of the empress ; provisional government under Trochu. Peace prevented by an- 
nexation of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. Four months' siege of Paris. Delegation 
of the Government of National Defense at Tours, afterward at Bordeaux. Creation of an 
army south of the Loire. Fall of Strasbourg and Metz. Ineffectual efforts of the besieged 
army to break out of Paris. 



456 MODERN BISTORT. 

Establishment of a new German Empire under William I. Paris is reduced by famine 
and bombardment. Its surrender. Three weeks' armistice. Constituent Assembly meets 
at Bordeaux. A republic organized with Thiers at its head. Bourbaki's army interned in 
Switzerland. Treaty of Versailles cedes Alsace and Lorraine and burdens France with a 
ruinous war indemnity. Communist insurrection in Paris. Three months' war between 
the two governments ended by victory to the Assembly. Rome occupied by Victor Emmanuel. 
Temporal sovereignty of the Popes overthrown. Eeign and resignation of Amadeo in Spain. 
Spanish republic proclaimed. Death of Victor Emmanuel and Pope Pius IX. Accession of 
Humbert I. and Pope Leo XIII. Alfonzo XII., king of Spain. His marriage and reign. Mar- 
shal McMahon president of France. Succeeded by M. Grgvy. Extension of French dominion 
in Africa. Turkish atrocities. Turko-Eussian War. Reorganization of the Ottoman dominion 
in Europe. Freedom of serfs in Russia. Assassination of Alexander II. and accession of 
Alexander III. English invasion of Afghanistan. 



QTJESTIOlsrs inOR RE'S^IE'W. 

Book V. 

1. What was the condition of Prance at the beginning of the Revolution? g 1. 

2. Describe the events of A. D. 1789 gj 2-6. 

3. What occasioned the interference of other European powers? . . . .8. 

4. What changes in the government, A. D. 1792, 1795, and 1799? . . . 9,33,51, 

5. Describe the earliest war-movements and their effect at Paris. . . 10-12, 15. 

6. The reign of Terror and its chief actors 13, 14, 25, 26. 

7. The character and acts of the Convention 16-22. 

8. What counter-revolutions occurred ? 23, 24, 27, 32. 

9. What revolutions in the Netherlands? 15,29,58,84,127. 

10. Describe the policy of the Directory at home and abroad. . . 33-35, 38, 41. 

11. Describe the first Italian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte 36-38. 

12. His Austrian campaign and the Peace of Campo Formio. . . 39, 40. 

13. His Egyptian campaign 44, 45, 50. 

14. The wars of the Second Coalition (A. D. 1798) 46-50, 54. 

15. Bonaparte's second Italian campaign 52. 

16. What were the conditions and effects of the Peace of Luneville ? . . .53, 58'. 

17. Of the Treaty of Amiens ? 55. 

18. The relations of England and Denmark ? 55, 73. 

19. Describe the legislative acts of Napoleon Bonaparte 56. 

20. The establishment of the first French Empire 60, 61, 66. 

21. The wars of the Third Coalition 62-65. 

22. WhaX changes occurred in Germany? 66. 

23. Describe the war with Prussia. 67, 68-72. 

24. The Peninsular War 74-78, 85-87, 99. 

25. What events preceded the I'eace of Schonbrunn? 79-82. 

2G. What changes in the States of the Church within a century? . 38, 41, 82, 151, 166, 235. 

27. AA'hat republics were formed or remodeled after that of Prance? . 29, 40, 42, 46. 

28. Describe Napoleon's Russian campaign and its results 89-94, 

29. The " War of Liberation " in Germany 95-98. 

30. The invasion of France by the allies 100-102. 

31. The two restorations of Louis XVIII. . . . . . . 103,104,108. 

32. The second reign of Napoleon 105-107. 

33. His character 109. 

34. The war between England and the United States 110-112, 

35. The reorganization of Europe after the wars of Napoleon. , . 113-116. 



BOOKS RECOMMENDED. 457 

36. What changes in Spain during the last sixty years? . . 117, 118, 138, 218, 219,236. 

37. In Portugal? 119- 

38. In Italy ? 120, 121, 129, 149-151, 163-166, 172, 235. 

39. Describe the Greek Revolution 130-135. 

40. Interventions of France and England in Turkish affairs. . 136, 156-158. 

41. The reign of Louis Philippe in France 125, 137, 139-141. 

42. Tell the story of the second French Republic 141, 142. 

43. Of the Revolutions of 1848 145-151. 

44. Of the Coup d'Mat and the rise of the Second French Empire. . 152-155. 

45. Describe the invasion of the Crimea by France and England 158-162. 

46. Explain the Schleswig-Holstein dififlculties 144, 167, 168. 

47. Describe the Seven "Weeks' War, its causes and incidents 169-173. 

48. What recent changes in Austria ? 174, 175. 

49. Explain the rise of the British donainion in India 176-181. 

50. Describe the war of England with China 182, 183. 

51. With the Afghans and the Sikhs 184-186. 

52. The Sepoy Rebellion 187-190. 

63. Tell the history of British colonies in Australia 191-193. 

54. In Nevi^ Zealand 194, 195. 

55. In Borneo 196. 

56. Of the United States from 1815 to the end of the vs^ar -vrifh. Mexico. 197-200. 

57. What causes of dispute existed between northern and southern states? . . 201-203, 

58. Describe the " Secession " and the Civil War 203-208. 

59. What relations at home and abroad since the return of peace? . . . 209-214. 

60. Tell the story of the Franco-Mexican War 215, 216. 

61. What led to war between France and Germany ? 217-221. 

62. Relate its events 221-229, 231, 232. 

63. What were the conditions of the Peace of Versailles? 233. 

64. Tell the history of the Commune. . . ' 233, 234, 

65. What great constitutional change in Germany during the war? . . . 230. 



BOOKS KECOMMENDBD FOB MOKE EXTENSIVE READING. 

Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Milmau's Edition. 
Finlay's History of Greece under the Romans. 

" History of Greece from its Conquest by tlie Crusaders to its Conquest 
by the Turks. 

" History of the Byzantine Empire, A. D. 717-1057. 

" ^ History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires. 
Stanley's History of the Eastern Oliurch. , 
Milman's History of Christianity. 

" History of Latin Cliristianity. 

Sismondi's History of the Italian Republics. 
Parke Godwin's History of France. 
Michelet's History of France. 
Martin's History of France. (The last named may supersede all others for readers 

of French.) 
Voltaire's Age of Louis XIV. 

" Life of Charles XII. 

" " " Peter the Great. 

Guizot's History of Civilization. 
Bryce's Holy Roman Empire. 



458 MODERN HISTORY. 

Baumer's History of the Hohenstaufen. 

Coxe's House of Austria. 

Froissart's Chronicles. 

Memoirs of Pliilip de Comines. 

Kirke's Life of Charles the Bold. 

Major's Life of Prince Henry the Navigator. 

Prescott's Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 

" Conquest of Mexico. 

" Conquest of Peru. 

" Edition of Robertson's Charles the Fifth. 

" Life of Philip the Second. 

Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic. 

" United Netherlands. 

" Life of J. van Olden Barneveldt. 

Rauke's History of Germany during the Reformation. 

" History of the Popes. 
Hiibner's Life and Times of Sixtus V. 
Weiss' History of French Protestant Refugees. 
PressensS's History of Protestantism in France. 
Memoirs of the Due de St. Simon. 
D'Aubigng's History of the Reformation. 
Campbell's Life of Petrarch. 
Villari's Life of Savonarola. 
Grimm's Life of Michael Angelo. 

Trollope's History of the Commonwealth of Florence. 
Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo d6 Medici. 

" Life of Leo X. 

Dyer's History of Modern Europe. 
Turner's Anglo Saxons. 
Palgrave's Normandy and England. 
Thierry's Norman Conquest. 
Freenaan's Norman Conquest. 
Knight's Popular History of England. 
Miss Strickland's Lives of the Queens of England. 
" " Lives of the Queens of Scotland and of English Princesses 

connected with the Succession. (To be consulted chiefly for illustrations of 

manners and customs— witli great caution as to characters.) 
Hume's History of England to A. D. 1688. 
Macaulay's History of England from the Accession of James II. 

" Essays on Bacon, Milton, Hampden, Hastings, Sir Wm. Temple, et al. 

Carlyle's Life and Letters of Oliver Cromwell. 

Fronde's History of England from the Death of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth. 
Mahon's History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles. 
Molesworth's History of England from A. D. 1830. 
Thackeray's Lectures on the Four Georges. 
Mrs. Oliphant's Sketches of the Reign of George II, 
Jesse's Life and Reign of George III. 
Campbell's Lives of the Lord Chancellors. 

" Lives of the Chief Justices of England. 

Bancroft's History of the United States. 
Parkinan's Pioneers of France in the New World. 
" Jesuits in North America. 

" Discovery of the Great West. 

" Conspiracy of Pontiac. 



BOOKS RECOMMENDED. 459 

Parkman's Oregon Trail. 

Palfrey's History of New England. 

Irving's Mahomet and His Successors. 

" Conquest of Granada. 

" Life of Columbus. 

" Life of Washington. 
Sparks' Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution. 

" Lives of Washington, Franklin, G. Morris, et al. 
De TocqueviUe's Democracj' in America. 
Carlyle's Frederic the Great. 

" French Revolution. 

Lamartine's Girondists. 
Thiers' History of the French Revolution, 

" The Consulate and the Empire. 
Lanfrey's Life of Napoleon. 
Kinglake's War in the Crimea. 

Malet's Overthrow of the Germanic Confederation. 
Hozier's Seven Weeks' War. 
The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Policy of Count von Beust. By an Eng- 

lishnjan. 
Riistow's War for the Rhine Frontier. 

Lectures on Modern History, by Dr. Arnold, Prof. Goldwin Smith, Prof, Seelye, 
Bulwer's Historical Characters. 
Mrs. Jameson's Historical Portraits. 



A.mong nutnberless works of imagination, illustrative of History, the following 
may be especially recommended : 

Southey's Roderick, the Last of the Goths. 

Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. Fairfax's Translation. 

Dante's Divine Comedy. Longfellow's Translation and Notes, 

Camoens' Lusiad. 

Byrou's Marino Paliero. 

Scott's Historical Novels. 

Bulwer's Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes. 

" The Last of the Barons. 

Kingsley's Amyas Leigh, or Westward, Ho! 

" Two Years Ago. 

" Hereward, the Last of the Saxons. 

George Elliot's Romola. 
Dickens' Barnaby Rudge. 
Dickens' Tale of Two Cities. 
Goethe's Goetz of Berlichingen, 

" Egmont. 

Schiller's Mary Stuart, 

" Maid of Orleans. 

" William Tell. 

" Don Carlos. 

" Wallenstein, Coleridge's Translation. 

Henry Taylor's Philip van Artevelde. 



460 MODERN HISTORY. 

Appendix A. — Page 104. 
HOUSES OP VALOIS AND ORLE'ANS. 
King John. 
Charles V. Louis I., Duke of Aujou. John, Duke of Berri. Philip the Bold, 



Charles VI. Louis, Duke of Or- John the Fearless. 



I 



Ifians. 



Charles VII. Chai-les, Duke of John, C't of An- Philip the Good. 

I Origans. gouleme. | 

LoTTiS XI. I Charles, C't of An- Cho.rles the Bold. 

I Loxris XII. gouleme. | 

Charles VIII. • Francis I. Mary. 

N. B, — Kings of France are in capital letters, Dukes of Burgundy in italics. 



B,—Page 296. 

THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 

Philip III. 

Anne of Austria, m. Louis XIII. Philip IV., m. Eliz. of Mai-y Anne, m. FER» 
j I France. I DINAND III. 

Louis XIV., m. Maria Theresa. Charles II. Marg't Theresa, in. LEOPOLD I., who 
I I m. (2d) Mary Anne of Neuberg. 

Louis Dauphin. Mary Antoinette, m. JOSEPH I. CHARLES VI. 

I I Elector of Bavaria. 

Louis. Philip V. Joseph Ferdinand, Electoral Prince of Bavaria. 

JV". B. — Emperors are in large capitals, Kings of Spain in small capitals. Kings of France in italics. 



C.—Page 304.- 

HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION. 

James I. of England. 



Charles I. Elizabeth, m. Frederick V., Elector Palatine. 

Henrietta Maria, m. D. of Orleans. Sopl'ia, in. Duke of Brunswick Luneburg, aft. 

I I Elector of Hanover. 

Anne Marie, m. Victor Amadeus, George Lewis, Elector of Hanover, became 
" I ' D. of Savoy. George I., King of Great Britain. 

Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy. 

It will be seen that the House of Savoy was one step nearer to the English throne than that of Brunswiei 
or Hanover. The latter succeeded by the Act of Parliament excluding Romanists. 



INDEX. 



2V. B. — Kings, Queens {in their own right), Emperors, and Popes are named under their 

respective dominions. Where the list is continuous, only one date, 

that 0/ ACCESSION, is added to each name. 



Abbas'sides, 32, 33, 39, 68, 124. 
Abbeville (ab'vel), 155. 
AbdaVlah, 116. 
Abdah'ah'maB, 32. 
Abderrah'man, 32. 
Abelard (ab'a lar), 81, 82, 120. 
Abercromble, 377. 
Aberdeen, JJord, 421. 
Abonkir (ab 00 keer'), 372, 375. 
Abu Beker (a boo bekr), 30. 
Acapulco (ak a pool'ko), 312. 
Acre (a'ker), 69, 77, 375, 410. 
Adalbert ( ad'al ber), 53. 
Adam, L'lle (leel a doN), 170. 
Ad'da, 248, 299. 
Adelaide, 53. 
Adige (a de'je), 299, 416. 
Adolph, Count, of Nassau, 215. 
Ador'nu, Antoniot'to, 168, 175. 
Adrianople, 126, 410. 
Adriatic, 17, 36, 51, 64, 113, 124, 

150, 389. 
iEgi'na, 288. 
.ffine'as Syl'vius. See Pope Pius 

II. 
Afghans, Afghanistan, 123, 124, 

431. 
Africa, 15, 17, 22, 25, 27, 169, 182, 

186, 198, 221, 222, 237, 263, 311, 

313, 336, 450. 
Ag'ilulf, 24. 

Agiucourt (a zhan koor'), 102. 
Agnadello (an ya del'lo), 150. 
Aix la Chapelle (aks la shapel'), 

37, 38, 41, 53, 83, 85, 107, 161, 

180, 278, 328, 330, 334, 401, 

403. 
Akbar, 124. 
Alaba'ma, 439, 440. 
Steamer, 441. 
Aland Isles, 385. 
Al'bany, 277, 315. 
Alba'nia, Albanians, 126, 127, 

407. 
Al'bemarle, 315. 
Al'beric, 52. 



Albert of Austria, Archduke, 
233, 238, 239, 244. 
the Great, 120. 
of Anbalt, " the Bear," 80. 
Albigenses (al'be zhon sez), 56, 

74, 89, 95. 
Alboin, 23, 24. 
Albret (al bra'), 159, 167. 
Albuera (al boo a'ra), 390. 
Alcala', 160. 
Alcan'tara, 221. 
Alca'zarqui'ver, 221. 
Alcuin (al'kwin), 37, note. 
Al'dus Minu'tius, 119. 
Alemari'ni, 17-19. 
Alep'po, 66, 71,75. ■ 
Alencon (aloN'soN), Francis D., 
of, 219, 220. SeeAnjou. 

Duchess of. See Marga- 
ret of Navarre. 
Alessandria, 82, 328, 368, 376. 
Alexander of JVIacedon, 27, 56, 
431. 
of lles'se, 425. 
Farnese (-na'sa). See 
Parma. 
Alexandria, 30, 51, 78, 132, 372,377. 
Alexis, son of Peter the Great, 

323. 
Algiers, Alge'ria, 182, 186, 271, 

290, 404, 411. 
Algon'quins, 316. 
Alham'bra, 115. 
Ali (a'lee), 33. 
Alicant', 301. 
Alkmaar', 216. 
Al'ma, 421. 
Alma'gro, 137. 

Almamun (al ma moon'), 40. 
Alman'sor, 40. 
Alman'za, 302. 
Almeida (al ma'e da), 390. 
Almeric, 69, 74. 
Alost', 217. 
Alp Arslan', 61, 125. 
Alps, 16, 22-24, 38, 52, 53, 55, 140, 
157, 172, 188, 277. 366, 369, 370, 
376. 

461 



Alpujarras (al poo har'ras), 208. 
Al'sace, 17, 105, 177, 257, 263, 279, 

280, 297, 326, 358, 449, 452. 
Al'sen, 424. 
Altai (al ti), 27. 
Altranstadt, 308, 309. 
Alva, Duke of, 154, 186, 201, 214- 

216, 221. 
Alva'ro do Luna, 114. 
Alvinzi (al vint'si), 369. 
Amade'us of Savoy, 110. 
Amal'afri'da, (-fre'da), 25. 
Amal'aric, 21. 
Amalason'tha, 22. 
Amal'fi (-fe), 52, 56, 62, 120. 
Amals, 18, 22. 

Amboise (oNb'waz), 204, 206. 
Cardinal of, 144, 147-151. 
America, 42, 91, 116, 117, 131-139, 

198, 200, 211, 229, 233, 263, 277, 

291, 297, 304, 311-318, 320, 324, 

330, 334, 336, 343-348, 351, 380, 

399, 402, 437, 444. 
Amiens (a me on'), 233, 378, 379, 

450. 
Amoy', 431. 
Amida (a me'da), 26. 
Ararou, 31. 
Am'sterdam', 212, 216, 223, 238, 

279. 
Anacle'tus, 80, 81. 
An'afes'ta, 51. 
Anagni (a nan'ye), 93, 94. 
Anco'na, 111, 423. 
Andalu'sia, 387, 391.' 
Andrassy, 427. 
Andrevir Palseol'ogus, 141. 
Ango'ra, 125. 
Angouleme (on goo lame'), 

Duchess of. See Louisa of 

Savoy. 
Duke of, 402. 
Angles, Anglo-Saxons, 17, 20, 

42,49,81. 
Anjou (ON'zhoo) county, 44, 46, 
86, 104. 

Count Charles of, 76, 77 
84, 85, 90, 99. 



Anj 



INDEX. 



Bav 



Anjou, Duke Louis I., 98-101. 
" III., 112. 

Rene, 112, 192. 
House of, in Italy, 93, 94, 
100,104,105,157,192, 261. 

Henry, Duke of, 207. See 
Prance, K. Henry III. 

Francis, Duke of, 220-222, 
224-226. 
Anna Comme'na, 58. 
Annap'olis, 344. 
Anne Boleyu (bool'in), 181. 
of Austria, 240, 260. 
of Beaujeu (b5 zhU') 106, 
170. 
of Bohemia, 108. 
of Brittany, 106, 144, 155. 
ofCleves, 184. 
Anthe'mius, 25. 
Antiocb in Syria, 64-68, 76, 77. 
Antie'tam, 441. 

Ant'werp, 185, 212, 214, 218, 223, 
226, 227,. 257, 328, 361, 391, 406. 
Ap'pomat'tox, 442. 
Aprax'in, 332. 
Apu'lia, 49, 50, 52, 56. 
Aauitaine', 19, 32, 34-37, 44, 67, 

81,86,89,97,98. 
Arabia, Arabs, 19, 29-34, 39-42, 
.52, 61, 83, 115, 118-121,160,372. 
Ar'iigo, 412, 449. 

Aragon, 36, 90, 93, 94, 114-116, 198, 
301, 302. 

House of, in Italy, 93, 112, 
145, 157. 
Kings of— 
Pedro III. (A. D. 1276-1285), 

84, 85. 
JamesII. (1291-1.327), 93. 
Alfonso V. (1416), 112-115. 
John II. (1458), 114, 115. 
Ferdinand (1479), 114-116, 135, 
140-150, 158,181. 
Araucanians, 138. 
Arco'le (-la), 369. 
Arcot, 429. 

Arctic Ocean, 16, 124. 
Archipel'ago, 73, 184. 
Arcis-sur-Aube (ar'se sur- 

obe'), 395. 
Ar'gentine Kepublic, 402. 
Argonne', 361. 
Argyle, Marquis of, 273. 

Earl of, 293. 
Arkan'sas, 138, 320, 440. 
Ar'istotle, 83, 122. 
Arians, 18, 21. 

Aries (arl), 17, 46, 5.3, 70, 121. 
Armellini (-le'ne), 416. 
Armenia, Armenians, 28, 61, 64, 

125. 
Arnulf, 46. 

Arnheim (-hime), 228. 
Arnold of Brescia, 82. 
Arno, 51. 
Arques (ark), 232. 
Arran, 193. 



Ar'ras, 259. 

Artois (artwa'), 76, 105, 176, 259. 
Charlps, Count t)f, 380. 

See France,King Charles X. 
Artevelde, Jacques van (zhak 

van ar ta vel'de), 97. 
As'calon, 66, 69. 
Aschaf fenberg, 425. 
Asia, 15, 25, 32, 42, 58, 61, 77, 79, 

100, 117, 123, 124, 131, 132, 139, 

198, 262, 312, 313, 336, 385, 428. 
Minor, 49, 61, 66, 67, 82, 

125, 126, 375. 
As'pern, 389. 
As'ti (-te), 328. 
Astu'rias, 31. 

John, Prince of, 143. 
Alfonso, Prince of, 446. 
Atahualpa (-hwal-), 137. 
Athal'ario, 22. 
Athens, 26, 114, 287, 409, 410. 
Atlanta, 441. 
Atlantic, 16, 21, 30, 132-135, 138, 

306, 314, 347, 437, 441. 
Attali'a, 67; 
At'tila, 36. 
Aubiguy (o been'ye). Constable 

d', 142, 145. 
Auerstadt (ow'er stet), 383. 
Augsburg (owgs'boorg), 163, 

164, 179, 193-195, 254, 255, 263. 
Augustenburg (ow goos'ten- 

boorg), 413, 424. 
Augustus, title, 28, 36, 451. 
Aumale (o mal'), Francis, Duke 

of, 192, 193. See Guise. 

Claude, Duke of, 196. 

Aurelles de Paladiues (o rel' de 

pal'a deen'), 450. 
Aurungzebe (o'rung zab'), 124, 

428. 
Australia, 428, 434, 435. 
Austerlitz (ow'ster letz), 381, 

382. 
Austria, Duchy. 85, 93, 109, 185, 

189, 199, 233, 239, 242-244, 321, 

328-331, 336, 346, 349, 351, 358, 

366, 369, .170, 373-.377, .380. 
Leopold V. of, 69-71,80. 
Leopold of Hapsburg, D. 

of, 107. 

LeopoldI,C1315). 96. 
Empire of, 37, 382, 385, 388- 

391, 393, 400-403, 410, 413-416, 

420-427. 
Emperors of— 
Francis I. (A. D. 1804), 382, 

389-391. 
Ferdinand I. (1835), 403, 415. 
Francis Joseph (1848), 415, 422- 

427. 
House of. See Hapsburgs. 
Austra'sia, 19, 20, 32. 
Auxerre (o ser'), 38. 
Avignon (a ven'yoN), 95, 100, 162, 

369, 401. 
Avars, 27. 

462 



Azores', 132-134, 222, 233. 

Azo'tus, 76. 

Az'ov, 287, 288, 310, 324, 421. 

B 

Ba'ber, 124. 

Bacon, Roger, 118,120. 

Ba'den, Dukes and Duchy, 196, 

287, 300, 382, 388, 414, 447, 451. 
Badajos (ba da hos'), 390. 
Baha'mas, 133. 
Bahia (ba'ea), 138. 
Bailly (ba'le), 356. 
Bagdad', 33, 40, 42, 62. 68, 124, 125. 
Biilaklii'va, 421 . 
Bal'dur, 18. 
Bal'ear'ic Isles, 17, 302. 
Balbo'a, Vasco Nunez de, 136, 

137. 
Bal'kan, 287. 
Baltic Sea, 17, 35-37, 43, 82, 94,. 

117, 251, 261, 282-284,307,310, 

334,394,401,421. 
Baltimore, Lord, 315. 

City, 400, 440. 
Balti, 18. 
Banner, 258-260. 
Bar, 169. 
Barbaros'sa, Turk, 182-184, 187, 

188. 
See Roman Emperors, 

Frederic I. 
Barbary States, 32, 100. 
Bar'bacan, 75. 
Barba'does, 271. 
Barcelo'na, .36, 85, 121, 134, 179, 

259, 275, 301. 
Bar'mecides, 40. 
Barneveldt', J. van Olden, 238i 

241, 242. 
Barlaimont', 212. 
Bari(ba're), 101. 
Baroncelli (-chel'le), 100. 
Bas'sora, 235. 
Bas'ientel'lo, 53. 
Bassa'no, 369. 

Bassignano (ba'sen ya'no), 328., 
Basle (bal), 109, 110, 164, 366, 379, 

394. 
Bastile' (-teel), 203, 231, 274, 355, 

358. 
Bata'via, 235. 

Batavian Republic, 374, 377-379. 
Bathori (ba'to re), 219. 
Bautzen (bowt'sen), 393. 
Bavaria, Bavarians, 19, 35, 36, 

44, 81, 109, 180, 189, 233, 239, 

253, 254, 263, 301, 325, .326, 336, 
366, 377, 381, 382, 388, 389, 394, 
410,414,447, 451. 

Electors of, 239, 244, 2.52- 

254, 263, 295, 300, 302, 304, 327, 
381. 

Prince Charles of, 425. 
Joseph Clement of, 297,300. 
Ernest of, Abp. of Co- 
logne, 234. 



Bav 



INDEX. 



Bru 



Bavaria, Kings of— 

Louis I. (A. D. 1825), 414. 

Maximilian II. (1848), 414. 

Louis II. (1864), 451. 
Bay'ard, 158, 171. 
Baylen, 387. 
Bayonne', 387, 394, 446. 
Bazaine', 448, 450. 
Bearn (ba ar'), 154. 
Beaton, Cardinal, 193. 
Beauharnais, Eugene (bo ar'- 

na), 38(1, 388, 392, 394, 396. 
Becket, Thos. k, 86, 88. 
Beerwald (bar valt), 251. 
"Beggars," 213-215,238. 
Beirat (ba root), 26, 77. 
Belfort (bel for'), 451. 
Belgian Republic, 351, 361. 
Belgium, 299, 367, 396, 405, 445, 
447. 

King Leopold I. of (A. D. 
. 1830-1865), 405. 
Belgrade', 21, 110, 111, 170, 178, 

•287, 320, 324. 
Belisa'rius, 22-26. 
Belle'ville, 395. 
Bena'res, 123. 
Ben'der, 309, 391. 
Benedek, 425, 426. 
Benedet'ti (-te), 445, 447. 
Benedictines, 90, 94, 
Beneven'to, 24, 50, 84, 382. 
Bengal', 123, 429,433. 
Beutivoglios (-vol'yo), 151. 
Berbice (-beess), 368. 
Beresina, 392. 
Berg, 184,239,383,401. 
Ber'gamo, 152. 
Berg'en, 117. 
Bergen op Zoom, 238. 
Bergerac Iber'zhe rak'), 220, 221. 
Berkeley, 315. 
Berlin', SO, 291,332, 334, 381, 383, 

384, 393, 445. 
Bernard of Clairvaux (-vo), 67, 

80, 81, 90. 
Bernadotte', 382, 383, 391, 393, 
404. See Sweden, K. Charles 
XIV. 
Berne, 371. 
Berri (-re), 220. 

Dukes of, 98, 99, 104. 

Duchess of, 410. 
Berserkers, 43. 
Bertha, 48. 

Bertbier (ber'te a), 370-372, 382. 
Bertrand de Goth (-go), 95. 
Berwick, Duke of (ber'rik), 301, 

302, 322, 323. 
Besan^on (b'zoN son'), 32. 
Bessara'bia, 391. 
Bethlehem, 75.- 
Bethlem Gabor, 243. 
Beust, Baron von (boist), 427. 
Be'za, 205, 206. 
Biarritz (be ar'rits), 425. 
Biron (be roN), 236. 



Biscay, 31, 259. 

Bismarck (bes'mark), 424-426, 

445, 447, 449, 451. 
Bithoor','433. 
Bithyn'ia, 61. ■ 
Black Sea, 16, 26, 78, 113, 209, 288, 

341, 350, 422. 
Blake, 270-272. 
Bleneau (-6),274. 
Blenheim (-hime), 300. 
Blois (blwa), 64, 151, 194, 220, 

241. 
Blucher (bloo'ker), 383, 394, 395, 

397. 
Boabdil, 115. 

Bobadilla (bob a deel'ya), 135. 
Boccaccio (bok kat'cho), 121. 
Bo'emond of Taran'to, 62, 64. 
Boe'thius, 21. 

Bohe'mia, Bohemians, IS, 81, 95, 

96, 107-109, 178, 190, 191, 199, 

239, 212-244, 253, 256-261, 321, 

324, 325, 403, 425, 426. 

Sovereigns of— 

Ottocar II. (A. D. ,1253-1278), 

85,95. 
John (A. D. 1310-1346), 96, 97. 
Wenceslaus VI. (1378-1419), 

107-109. 
Sigismund (1419-1437), 109. 
Ferdinand I. (1526), 178-180, 

185, 190-195, 198. 
Maximilian (1564), 207, 218. 
Rudolph (1576), 219, 239. 
Matthias (1611), 242. 
Ferdinand II. (1617), 242-244. 
Frederic (1619), 243,244. 
Ferdinand III. (.1627), 256. 
Sameioitli Rom. Emperors, tmlil 
Maria Theresa (1740), 324-327, 
330, 331, 336, 340, 350. 
Bokha'ra, 125. 

Bolivar (bo lee'var), 402, note. 
Boliv'ia, 138, 402. 
Bologna(bolon'ya), 120, 1.51,152, 

158, 179, 192, 369, .370. 
Bombay', 318. 

Bonaparte, Jerome, 385, 392, 394, 
449. 

Joseph, 380, 382, 385, 387, 
395. 
Louis, 380, 385, 390, 406. 
Louis Napoleon, 406, 412, 
417-419, 423,426,444-449. 
Lucien, 417. 
Bonnivet (-va), 171. 
Bordeaux (-dO), 97, 193, 395, 450- 
452. 
Duke of, 405. 
Bor'neo, 428, 436. 
Borodino (-dee'no), 392. 
Borromeo (-ma'o), Charles, 199, 

204. 
Bos'nia, 126, 179, 234, 287, 324, 

407. 
Boso, 46. 
Bos'porus, 27. 

463 



Bossuet' (-swa1, 306. 

Boston, 344. 

Bosworth, 103. 

Both'nia, 385. 

Bothwell, 210. 

Boufflers (boo'fler), 292. 

Bouillon (bool'you), Duke of, 

237, 240. 
Boulogne (boo Ion), 187, 406, 418. 
Bourbaki (boor ba'ke), 451. 
Bourbon (boor boN), House of, 
170, 222, 231, 317, 380, 396, 404, 
405, 446. 

Spanish in Italy, 323, 402, 
403, 424. 

Constable de, 156, 158, 159, 
170-174, 231. 
Bourdaloue (boor da loo'), 306. 
Bourmont (boor nioN'), 404. 
Boyne, 294. 

Bozzaris (bot za'ris), 409. 
Brabant', 105, 215, 216, 226, 229, 

239. 
Braganca, dynasty, 259, 386. 
Brandenburg, 53, 80, 107, 109, 
332. 
Albert of, 194, 196. 
Electors of— 
Joachim 1., 177. 
Joachim II., 185. 
John Sigismund, 239, 240. 
George William, 252. 
Frederic William the Great, 

278, 279, 282, 284, 291, 299. 
Frederic III., 299. See Prus- 
sia, kings of. 
Bi'andy wine, 345. 
Brankii'ka (-keer'ka), 245. 
Brazil', 134, 136, 138, 222, 259, 313, 
314, 34S, 386, 402, 403. 

Emperor of— Pedro I., 402, 
403. 
Breda (bra'da), 278, 362. 
Brederode (bra'de ro'de), 213. 
Breisach (bri'zak), 300. 
Brem'en, 69, 190, 263, 283. 
Brescia (bresh'e a), 152, 369, 416. 
Brest, 306, 333. 
Bretigny (bret een'ye), 98. 
Briconnet (bre son na'), 189. 
Briel (breel), 215, 228. 
Brienne (bre en'), 389, 395. 
Brihtric (brit'rik), 42. 
Brihuega (bre hwa'ga), 303. 
Brindisi (brin'de se), 78, 111, 

149. 
Bristol, 268. 

Britain, Britons, 16, 17, 43. 
Brittany, Bretagne, 44, 47, 81, 

98, 106, 138, 140, 144, 155. 
Brixen,388. 
Bromsebro, 261. 
Brooke, James, 436. 
Bru'ges, 117,302,327. 
Brunehaut(-ho), 19,20. 
Brunelleschi (broo nel les'ke)^ 
122. 



Bru 



INDEX. 



Cha 



Brunswick, Dukes and Duchy, 
190, 196, 333, 359-361, 383, 385, 
394. 
House of, in England, 335. 
Prince Ferdinand of, 333- 
335. 
Bru'sa, 126. 

Brussels', 159, 194, 202, 203, 214, 
215, 218, 223, 224, 271, 272, 302, 
328, 333, 405. 
Bucharest (book a rest'), 391. 
Buckingham, 249, 250. 
Bucqiioi (book kwa'), 242-244. 
Bu'da, 178, 179, 217, 286. 
Buenos Ayres (bwa'nos i'rez), 

138. 
Bulgaria, Bulgarians, 18, 25, 27, 
41, 57, 58, 63, 126, 179, 407. 
Bogoris, king of, 41. 
Billow, 395. 
Bunker Hill, 344. 
Buren, Count of, 214, 227. 
Burgoyne', 335, 345. 
Bur'gundy, Burgundians, 17- 
20, 22, 34, 46, 53, SO, 121. 

Duchy, 105, 140, 157, 167, 
172, 173, 176, 278. 
Dukes of— 
Eudolph, 47. 
Hugh the Great, 47. 
Hugh III., 69. 

Dukes of the House of 
Valois— 
Philip the Bold, 99-101. 
John the Fearless, 101, 102. 
Philip the Good, 102-104. 
Charles the Bold, 104, 105. 
Mary, Duchess of, 105, 106, 
157. 

Margaret, heiress of, 106, 
143, 148, 154, 156, 169, 183. 
"Circle" of, 193, 198, 214. 
County of. See Franche 
Comte. 

Louis of France, Duke of, 
302-304. 
Burkersdorf, 336. 
Burmah, 124, 433. 
Bute, 335. 
Butler, 440. 

Byng, Admiral, 302, 331. 
Byron, Lord, 409. 
Byzantine. See Roman Em- 
pire of the East. 



Cabot, Sebastian, 136, 138. 

Cabral', 136. 

Cabrieres (ka bre a re), 189 

Cabrillo (ka breel'yo), 138. 

Cabul (kabool'), 431. 

Ca'diz, 134, 229, 232, 272, 346, 387, 

390, 391, 402. 
Caen', 363. 

C«sar Borgia, 144, 146, 147. 
Csesars, Emperors, 36, 39, 53, 73, 

132, 140, 152, 380, 382. 



CiBsare'a, 66. 
Cagliari (kal ya re), 182. 
Cairo (ki'ro), 62, 65, 68, 76,372,374. 
Cajetan, Cardinal, 164. 
Cala'bria, 24, 41, 46, 50, 142, 187. 

Dukes of, 112. 
Calais (ka la'), 97, 155, 161, 167, 

171, 202, 206. 
Calcutta, 318, 428, 429, 434. 
California, 438, 439. 
Calmar, Union of, 245. 
Calonne', 353. 
Calvary, 65. 

Calvin, John, 183, 203, 212. 
Calvinists, 240, 242. 
Cambaceres', 376, 380. 
Cambray, 133, 148-150, 159, 176, 

194, 226, 232. 
Camden, 346. 
Campagna (-pan'ya), 201. 
Campania, 23. 
Campo Formio, 370, 401. 
Canada, 318, 320, 334, 343-345, 399. 
Canary Isles, 117, 1.32, 133. 
Candia, Crete, 40, .'57, 113, 285, 410. 
Canino, Pr. Charles of (ka ne'- 

no), 417. 
Cannes (kan), 396. 
Canning. See Stratford de Red- 

cliffe. 
Cano'pus, 377. 
Canos'sa, 55. 
Canterbury, 86,87,181. 
Canton', 430, 431. 
Cape Breton Isles, 328, 334. 
Cape Verde Isles, 132. 
Capets (ka pa'), 48, 97, 173, 249. 
Capo d'Istrias (ka po dis'tre a), 

409. 
Cap'ua, 50, 141. 
Carac'cas, 312. 
Caraffa. See PaulIV. 
Carbona'ri, 403, 404, 422. 
Cardis, 284. 
Care'lia, 283, 308. 
C'aribbee Is., 134. 
Carignano (ka ren ya'no), 406. 
Carin'thia, 85, 140, 195, 394. 
Carlisle', 269. 
Carlos, son of Philip Tl. of 

Spain, 199, 233. 
son of Philip V. of Spain, 

320-323, 334. See " Two Sici- 
lies." 
bro. of Ferdinand VII. of 

Spain, 411, 446. 
Carlot'ta, 444. 
Carlovingians, 34, 44, 48, 52. 
Carlsbad', 404. 
Carlscro'na, .378. 
Carlsruhe (-roo), 388. 
Carlstadt', 176. 
Carmelites, 91. 
Carnio'la, 85. 
Carolina, 315-317. 
Carolina, North, 440. 
South, 439, 442. 

464 



Carpathian Mts., 16, 285. 
Car'rickfer'gus, 334. 
Carrier, 364, 365. 
Cartage'ua in Spain, 186, 301. 

in South America, 229, 312. 
Carteret, 315, 326. 
Carthage, 77. 
Carthusians, 9(/, 
Cartier (kar te a'), 133. 
Casa'le, 275, 328. 
Caspian Sea, 16, 26, 401. 
Cassa'no, 301, 373. 
Cassel, 280. 
Cassiodo'rus, 21, 22. 
Castal'do, 195. 

Castiglione (kas tel yo'na), 369. 
Castile (-teel), 93, 98, 99, 114, 148, 

154, 198. 
Sovereigns of— 
Alfonso the Wise (A. D. 1252. 

1284), 85. 
Pedro the Cruel (1350), 98, 99. 
Henry II. (1368-1379), 98. 
John II. (1406), 114. 
Henry IV. (1454), 114. 
Isabella (1474), 114-116, 133-135, 

140, 143, 148, 181. 
Catalonia, 36, 114, 132, 259, 262^ 

275, 296, 301, 302, 390. 
Cateau Cambresis (ka to kam 

bra'se), 202, 203,213. 
Catherine of Aragon, 143, 181^ 

197. 
Catinat (ka te na), 295, 299. 
Caucasian Mts., 16, 27. 
Cavaignac (ka ven yak'), 412, 
Cavour (ka voor'), 423. 
Cawnpore, 433. 
Cayenne', 368, 419. 
Celebes (sel'e bez), 318. 
Celts, 17. 

Cerignola (cha ren yo'la), 146. 
Cerdagne (ser dan'), 106. 
Cerro Gordo, 438. 
Cerroni (cher ro'ne), 100. 
Cesarini, Card, (cha sa re'ne), 

110, 111. 
Ceuta (su'ta), 31, 259. 
Ceva (cha'va), 368. 
Cevennes' (sa ven'), 16, 156. 
Ceylon, 318, 368, 378. 
Chalcedon (kal'se don), 27. 
Chalons (sha Ion), 448. 
Chambord (shoN bor'). Castle, 

194, 387. 
Count of. See Duke of 

Bordeaux. 
Champagne (sham pane), 67, 70, 

71,90, 172, 187. 
Championnet (shoN peonna'), 

373. 
Champlain, 139, 317. 
Lake, 317, 400. 
Champs Elysees (shaNS a le 8a'), 

412. 
Changarnier (shSN gar'ne a), 

419. 



Cha 



INDEX. 



Ben 



•Chapultepec (clia pool ta pek'), 

438. 
Charette (sha ret'), 367. 
Charite (sha re ta'), 207. 
Charleniont (sliar I'moN'), 223. 
Charles of Austria, archduke, 

377, 381, .'188, 389. 
candidate for Sp. crowu, 

297, 300-303. See Roni; Em- 
pire, Charles VI. 
CharlesofDiirazzo, 100,101,112. 
Charles of Lorraine, bro. of 

Lothaii-e, 48. 
Charleston, 346, 440, 442. 
Chartres (shartr), 230, 232. 
Chateaubriand (sha to'bre on'), 

Countess, 168. 
Chatillon (sha te yoN'), 451. 
•Chattanoo'ga, 441. 
Chaucer, 120. 
Chauni (sho'ne), 201. 
Chemnitz (kem'nits), 2.59. 
Cherasco (ka ras'ko), 368. 
Cherbourg (sher'boorg), 295. 
Cherson (ker'son), 28, 50, 341. 
Cherubusco (ker'oo bus'ko), 438. 
Chesapealie Bay, 315, 400. 
-Chester, 272. 
■Chiari (ks ii're), 299. 
Ohiavenna (ke a ven'na), 153. 
Chihuahua (che wa wa'j, 438. 
Chili (che le), 138, 402. 
•China, Chinese, 25,42, 78, 79, 118, 

119, 124, 132, 200, 235, 313, 430, 

431, 443. 
Chios, Scio, 209. 
Chippewa, 400. 
Chlum, 426. 

Choiseul (shwa zul'), T>. de, 333. 
Cholula, 137. 
Chotzim, 391. 

Christi'na, Regent of Spain, 411. 
Chrysochir, 56. 
Cilicia, 27. 
Cintra, 387. 
Circassians, 78. 

Cisalpine Kepublic, 370, 374-380. 
Cistercians, 91. 
Citeaux (se to'), 91. 
■Ciudad Rodrigo (the oo dad' rod 

re'go), 302, 390. 
Civitel'la, 50. 
Clairfait (-fa), 368. 
Clairvaux (-vo), 67, 80. 
Clamart (-maR'), 450. 
Clara Eugenia Isabella, 232, 233. 
Clarendon, 273, 292, 315. 
Claude of France, 146, 155. 
Claverhouse, 292, 294. 
Clay, Henry, 439. 
Clement III., antipope, .?6. 

VII., antipope, 100, 101. 
Clermont, 62. 
■Cleves, 184, 186, 187, 239, 240, 242, 

401. 
■Clinchy, 451. 
€lis80w, 308. 



Clive, 429, 430. 

Clotil'da, 18. 

Cluny, SO. 

Coblentz', 261, 358, 394. 

Cochin, 132, 368. 

Cognac (kOn yak'), 207. 

Cohorn, 295. 

Colbert (-ber), 277, 291, 305, 306, 

313. 
Coligny (ko leen'ye), 201, 206, 

, 207, 210,211,316. 
Cologne (ko Ion'), 17, 160, 184, 

224,260,271,297,300,304. 
Colombia, 402. 
Colon'na, Card., 174. 

Prosper, 1.57. 
Columbia, City, 442. 
Columbus, C, 133-136, 138. 

Diego, 136. 
Communes, 88, 360, 365. 
Comnenian Dynasty, 58, 72. 
Como, 248. 

Compiegne (kom pe ane'), 103. 
Concini (kon che'ne), 241. 
Concordia, 151. 
Conde, 204, 206, 207. 

Henry, Pr. of, 207, 219, 220, 

230, 240, 241. 
the Great, 260, 263, 274, 275, 

278, 280, 295. 
Coni (ko'ne), 374. 
Connecticut, 314. 

River, 315. 
Conrad, son of Emperor Henry 

IV., 56. 
of Montferrat, 68-70, 74. 
Conradin, 84. 
Constance, 108, 193. 
Constance, Q. of Aragon, 84. 
Constantia of Sicily, 83. 
Constantine, viceroy of Poland, 

406. 
Constantinople, 19, 21-28, 31, 36, 

40-42, 49, ,50, 61, 63, 69, 72, 73, 

78, 85, 109-111, 122, 125, 127, 178, 

187, 350, 375, 385, 408, 409, 420. 
Contreras (-tra'ras), 438. 
Cook, Capt., 434. 
Copenhagen, 283, 284, 377, 385. 
Cor'bach, 334. 
Corday, Charlotte, 363. 
Cor'dova, 31, 33, 35, 39,42, 93, 115, 

208, 390. 
Corinth, 287. 
Corna'ro, C, 149. 
Corneille (kor nal'), 306. 
Corneto (-na to). Card., 146. 
Cornwall, 16, 43. 
Cornwallis,346. 
Corona'do, 138. 

Cor'sica, 17, 23, 25, 196, 366, 446. 
Cortenuova, 84. 

Cortereal, G. (kor ta ra'al), 136. 
Cor'tez, 136, 137, 157. 
Corun'na, 169, 388. 
Cossacks, 244, 282, 284, 286, 309, 

a33, 374, .392. 

465 M. 



Cosso'va, 111, 127. 

Coulmiers (kool'me a), 450. 

Courland, 79, 307, 308. 

Courtrai', 261, 290. 

Coutras (koo trii'), 230. 

Cracow, 124, 282, 308, 339. 

Craumer, 181. 

Crecy (kra'se), 97, 102, 118. 

Cremieux (kra me uh'), 412, 449. 

Cremo'na, 168, 299, 423. 

Crescentius, 54. 

Crespy, 187. 

Crime'a, 26, 28, 286, 324, 339, 341, 

350, 419, 421. 
Croatia, Croats, 179, 252,258,325, 

415. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 269-273, 275, 

283. 
Richard, 272. 
Cron'stadt, 308. ^ 

Crusades, 58-80, 90, 121. 
Cuba, 133, 136, 312, 335, 336. 
Cullo'den, 326. 
Cumse, 23. 
Cuma'na, 134. 
Cumberland, Dukes of, 326, 327, 

331, 431. 
Custozza (-tod za), 416, 426. 
Custrin, 383. 
Cuthred, 42. 

Cyprus, 70, 76, 79, 113, 149, 209. 
Cyprus, Isaac, King of, 70. 
Czartoryski (char-), 406. 
Czaslau (chaz'low), 325. 

D 

Dalecar'lia, 245. 

Dalma'tia, 41, 51, 64, 71, 149, 179, 

287, 385, 394. 
Damas'cus, 30, 66, 68, 71. 
Damiet'ta, 74, 76. 
Dan'dolo, 71. 
Dan'te, 121. 
Danton, 360, 364, 365. 
Dantzic, 282, 322, 340, 384. 
Danube, 17, 21, 23, 26, 32, 36, 37, 

57, 68, 179, 253, 256, 260, 261, 

287, 300, 373, 381, 401, 410, 420, 

422. 
Da'ra, 26. 
Darnley, 210. 

Daun (down), 302, 332-334. 
Dauphiny. See Vienne. 
Davis, .Jefferson, 440. 
Davoust (da voo'), 372, 383, 391, 

393. . 
Debreczin (da bret'sin), 415. 
Deccan, 429. 
Deira, 43. 

Delaware River, 315. 
Delft, 217. 

Delhi (del'lee), 123, 428, 433. 
Deniera'ra, 346, 368. 
De Monts fdtlh moN'), 139. 
Den'dermon'de, 216, 226. 
Denmark, 43, 81, 94, 100, 182, 186, 

187, 239, 245-247, 251, 261, 278, 

H.— 30 



Sen 



INDEX. 



Engr 



Denmark, 282-284, 307, 309, 321, 
332, 334, 346, 362,377,385,391, 
394, 413, 414. 
Sovereigns of— 

Waldemar II. (A. D. 1202- 
1241), 94. 

Margaret Waldemar (1387- 
1412), 245. 

Eric, Christian I., John, 245. 

Christian II. (1513-1523), 245, 
246. 

Frederic I., Christian III., 
Frederic II., 246. 

Christian IV. (1588), 247, 2.50, 
251. 

Frederic III. (1648), 2S3. 

Christian V. (1670), 284. 

Frederic IV. (1699-1730), 307. 

Christian VII. (1766-1808), 342. 
' Christian VIII. (1839), 413. 

Frederic VII. (1848), 424. 

Christian IX, (1863), 424. 
Desaix (deh sa), 372, 375, 377. 
Descartes (da kart), 281, 352. 
Dessau (-ow). Prince of, 327. 
D'Estaing (des taN'), 345, 346. 
Detroit', 339. 
Det'tingen, 326. 
Dev'onshire, 18. 
De Witt, 277, 299. 
Diana of Poitiers (pwa, te a')) 

192, 194. 
Diaz (de'az), 132. 
Dieppe (de ep'), 132, 450. 
Diu (de'oo), 313. 
Dixmude', 290. 

Dnieper (ne'per), 16,340,342,392. 
Dniester (nee'ster), 342. 
Dolet (-la), Stephen, 189, 
Dominic Guzman (gooth man'), 

91. 
Domin'icans, 75, 91, 96, 163. 
Do'mitz, 258. 

Domremy (doN ra'me), 102. 
Don, 16, 284. 
Donatel'lo, 122. 
Donauwerth (do'now vert), 239, 

2.53, 256. 
Do'ria, Andrew, 175, 180, 186, 187. 
Dorogobourg, 392. 
Dorset, Marquis of, 154. 
Dort, 215, 241 . 
Dorylfe'um, 64. 
Dorystolon, 57. 
Dowlah, 429. 

Drach'enburg (-boorg), 190. 
Dragaschan, 408. 
Draghut (dra goof), 196. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 229. 
Dresden, 308, 327, 331, 333, 391, 

393. 
Dreux (drtih), 206. 
Duces (-co), Koger, 375. 
Dufour (dti foor'), 414. 
Dumouriez (dti moo re a'), 361, 

368. 
Dunbar, 266. 



Dundee. See Claverhouse. 

Dunes, 275. 

Dunkirk, 226, 261, 271, 273, 27-5, 

277, 304, 306, 333, 334. 
Dupleix (du pla'), 429. 
Dupont (dti poN), 387. 

de I'Eure (deh liir'), 412. 
Duprat (dti pra'j, 1.56. 
Durance', 182, 188. 
Durazzo (doo rat'so), 50. 
Duren, 186. 
Diis'sel dorf, 240. 
Dutch Republic. See United 

Netherlands. 
Dwi'na, 16, 340, 392. 



Early, Gen., 441. 

Ebro (a'bro), 36, 159. 

Eok, 164. 

Edes'sa, 26, 64, 65, 67. 

Edgeworth, 362. 

Ed'inburg (-bur ruh), 269, 293, 

405. 
Edward, Black Prince, 97, 98. 
Effingham, Lord Howard of, 

229. 
Egmont, 213-215. 
Egypt, 27, 30, 32, 40, 65, 66, 68, 71, 

74-77, 127, 128, 160, 178, 372, 

374-379, 409. 
Ehrenberg (a'ren berg), 189, 195. 
Ehrenbreitstein (a' ren brit'- 

stin), 253, 257. 
Eisleben (is'la ben), 162. 
Elba, 395, 396. 

Elbe, 16-18, 27, 36, 190, 393, 426. 
Elbing, 284. 
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 67, 86, 88. 

of Austria, 155, 173, 198. 
Electors of Rom. Emp., 107,179, 

215,379. 
Palatine — 
Louis v., 177. 
Frederic IV., 240. 
Frederic V., 240, 243, 244, 255- 

256, 268. 
Charles Louis 258, 263. 
Elizabeth of France, 202. 

Electress Palatine, 243, 

244, 268. 
of York, 140. 
of Parma, 320. 
Ella, 43. 
Elliot, 346. 
Elsterburg, 259. 
Em'den, 215. 

Enckhuisen (-hoi'sen), 215, 
Enghien (on ge on), Dukes of, 

260, 261,380. 
England, 16, 37, 47, 49, 64, 68, 69, 

72, 74, 86-89, 94-100, 103, 108, 

117-120, 133, 140, 148, 181, 182, 

193, 197, 202, 213, 229, 235, 248, 

249, 262, 267-273, 275, 277-280, 



England, 283, 291-307, 310-316, 

319, 321, 324-336, 343-348, 362, 

366, 372, 376-389, 393-401, 409- 

412, 419-422, 425, 440-444, 449. 

Sovereigns of— 

Egbert (A, D. 827-8.36). 42,43, 

47, 49. 
Alfred (871-901), 21, 47, 120. 
Ath'elstan (925-940), 47. 
Ethelred (978-1016), 47. 
Knut, Harold, Hardiknut, 47. 
Edward the Confessor (1042- 

1066), 49. 
Harold II. (1066), 49. 

Morman Line- 
William I. (1066), 49, 86. 
William II. (1087), 86. 
Henry I. (1100), 86. 
Stephen I. (1135), 86. 

Plantagenets— 
Henry II. (1154), 68, 69, 86, 88. 
Richard I. (1189), 69-71, 75, 87, 

121. 
John (1199), 69, 87. 
Henry III. (1216), 77, 85, 87. 
Edward I. (1272), 76, 77, 87, 88, 

93. 
Edward II. (1307), 96. 
Edward III. (1327), 97, 103, 118, 

202. 
Richard II. (1377), 98, 99, 103, 
108. 
House of Lancaster — 
Henry IV. (1399), 103; 156. 
Henry V. (1413), 102, 103, 156, 

161. 
Henry VI. (1422), 103, 156. 

House of York- 
Edward IV. (1461), 103, 104, 

156. 
Edward V. (1483), 103. 
Richard III. (1483), 103, 156. 

Tudors— 
Henry VII. (1485), 103, 106,136, 

140, 148, 156. 
Henry VIII. (1509), 151, 152, 
155, 156, 161, 170, 171, 174, 180- 
182, 184, 186, 187, 191, 267. 
Edward VI. (1547), 186,191,197. 
Mary I. (1553), 181, 197, 201, 202. 
Elizabeth (1.558), 202, 206, 210, 
211, 215, 216, 223, 224, 227-229, 
232, 233, 235, 238, 267, 280, 430. 
Stuarts- 
James I. (1603), 238, 240, 243, 

249, 267, 314. 
Charles I. (1625-1649), 249, 258, 

267-269. 
[Commonwealth, see Crom- 
well.] 
Charles II. (1660), 269-273, 277- 

280, 292, 293, 315. 
James II. (1685-1688), 293-295, 
297, 299. 

r William III. (16S9),288,294- 
< 299. 
•^Mary II., 280. 294. 



466 



Eng 



INDEX. 



Fro 



English Language, 49, 120. 

Epidan'rus, 408. 

Bpi'rus,407. 

Erfurt, 162, 383, 387. 

Erie, 400. 

Erlau (-low), 196, 234. 

Ernest of Austria, 229. 

Espartero (-ta'ro), 411. 

Bssek, 180, 285, 287. 

Essequibo (es sake'bo), 346,368. 

Essex, Earl of, 293. 

Essling, 389. 

Estrees (es tra'), 331. 

Ethandune, 47. 

Etruria, Kingdom of, 377, 386. 

Eudes of Aquitaine, 32. 

Eugene of Savoy, 287, 295, 298- 

304, 319. 
Eugenie (ii zha'ne), 423, 447-449. 
Euphra'tes, 26, 66, 125, 410. 
Europe, 15, 16, 32, 45, 78, 79, 117. 

120, 131, 139, 202, 263, 297, 330, 

351, 453. 
Evesham, 87, 
Eylau (I'low), 384. 

F 
Faen'za, 149. 
Falkirk, 88. 
Falkland, Lord, 268. 
Falster, 283. 
Famagus'ta, 209, 
Faneuil, 317. 
Farragut, 440. 
Fatimites, 33, 65, 125, 126. 
Favre (favr), 449. 
FayalV 233. 
Fehrhel'lin, 284. 
Fenelon, 304, 306. 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, 333. 
of Spain, Card. Infant, 
256, 257. 

of Styria, 239, 242. See 
Koman Emp. Ferd. II. 
Fer'mo, 167. 
Ferrii'ra, 109, 150-153, 175, 369, 

370. 
Fervieres, 449. 
Ferry, 449. 

Feudalism, 13, 20, 45, 78, 103, 359. 
Finland, Fins, 18, 283, 310, 385, 

387. 
Flanders, 105, 167, 176, 198, 216, 
229, 275. 
Counts of, 64-68, 
Flemings, 79, 87, 93, 94, 97, 104, 

117,118, 159. 
Fleurus, 295, 366. 
Fleury, 418. 

Cai-diual, 322, 326. 
Flodden, 155. 

Florence, 110-114, 121, 122, 141, 
143, 144, 149, 153, 154, 158, 175, 
179,201, 374,449. 
Florida, 1.36, 138, 211 , 229, 314, 324, 

336, 346, 347, 437, 439. 
Flushing, 228. 



Foix (fwa), Andrew de, 166. 
Eleanor de, 115. 
Gaston de, 152, 153. 
Germaine de, 148. 
Fontainebleau (-bio), 350, 361, 

389, 394, 395. 
Fontenay, 38,44. 
Foochoo, 431. 
Forbach, 448. 
Forey, 444. 
Forli(-le),406. 
Forno'vo, 142. 
Foth'eringay', 228, 269. 
Fouquet (foo ka'), 277. 
France, 20, 23, 26, 32-35, 39, 44- 
48, 62, 63, 74, 86-90, 93, 97-106, 
140, 155, 167, 187-189, 201-207, 
210, 211, 222, 230-237, 256-263, 
274-280, 283, 290, 295-306, 313- 
336, 345-398, 400, 401, 409-413, 
417-423, 425, 428, 429, 440, 444- 
453, 454. 
Kings of— 
Hugh Capet (-pa), (A. D. 987), 

48. 
Robert (996), 48. 
Henry I. (1031), note, p. 88. 
Philip I. (1060), note, p. 88. 
Louis VI. (1108), 88. 
Louis VII. (1137), 67, 86, 88. 
Philip II, (1180), 68, 69, 71, 87, 

89. 
Louis VIII. (1223), 87, 89. 
Louis IX. (1226), 76, 78, 84, 89, 

90. 
Philip III. (1270), 85, 90. 
Philip IV. (1285), 79, 93-97. 
Louis X. (1314), 97. 
Philip V. (1316), 97. 
Charles IV. (1322), 97. 

Family of Valois— 
Philip VI. (1328), 97. 
John (1350), 97, 98, 173. 
Charles V. (1364), 98. 
Charles VI. (1380), 99-102. 
Charles VII. (1422), 102, 103. 
Louis XI. (1461), 104-106, 118, 

157, 173, 219. 
Charles VIII. (1483), 106, 140- 
144. 
House of Orleans- 
Louis XII. (1498), 106, 142- 

155. 
Francis I. (1515), 138, 155-161, 

.166-176, 180-lSS, 191. 
Henry II. (1547), 181, 191-195, 

201-203,213. 
Francis II. (1559), 202-205. 
Charles IX. (1560), 205, 210, 

216-219. 
Henry III. (1574), 219-222, 230, 
231. 
Family of Bourbon- 
Henry IV. (1589), 231-233, 236, 

240,248, 291,356. 
Louis XIII. (1610), 240, 241, 
253,259,260, 291. 

467 



Louis XIV. (1643), 260, 262, 273- 
280, 284, 287, 290-292, 295-306, 
316,318,320,323,372,451. 
Louis XV. (1715), 319-324, 326, 

329, 330, 352. 
Louis XVI. (1774), 34r,, 352-362, 
Louis XVII. (1793-1795), 62, 67. 
Louis XVIII. (1814), 367, .395- 

397, 404. 
Charles X. (1824), 395, 396, 404, 
405. 
Sec'd House of Orleans- 
Louis Philippe (1830), 405, 406, 
410-412, 418, 449. 
France, Isle of, 428, 429. 
Franche Comte (froNsh koN 
ta), 105, 169, 227, 233, 277-280, 
358. 
Francis of Assisi (-se'se), 91. 
Franciscans, 76, 91. 
Francisco of Assis, 411. 
Franco'nia, 39, 44, 52,80, 109,177, 

253-256, 336, 383. 
Frangipani (-pa'ne), 80. 
Frankfort, on Main, 107, 185, 
243, 325, 401, 413, 414, 424-426. 
on Oder, 333. 
Franklin, 345. 

Franks, 17-23, 27, 32, 35-38, 43, 
278. 
Kings and Leaders of— 
Clovis, 18, 19, 404. 
Theod'oric, Sigebert, Chilpe- 

ric, 19. 
Theod'ebert, 19, 22. 
Childebert, 27. 
Clotairell., Dag'obert,(-b§r), 

20. 
Pepin of Landen, — of HeristaP, 

20. 
Charles Martel, 20, o2,3i. 
Pepin le Bref, Carloman, 34, 

35. 
Charlemagne, 34-36. 
[See Romans, Emperors of, 
Charlemagne to Charles 
III.l 
Eudes, 46. 

Charles the Simple, 46, 47. 
Louis IV., Lothaire, 47. 
Louis v., 48. 
Fred'egonde, 19, 20. 
Frederic of Austria, 97. 
Fredericshall, 310. 
Fredericsod'de, 283. 
Freiberg (fri berg), in Saxony, 

260, 336. 
Freiburg (fri'boorg), in Baden 

261. 
French, 68, 69, 79, 85, 138-143, 175. 
Language, 39, 121, 183, 
371. 
Frey'a, 18. 

Friedland (freed-), 384. 
Friesland (frees-), 216, 250. 
Friuli (free oo'le), 44,46,149,369, 
Fronde, 274, 275. 



Fru 



INDEX. 



Har 



Frundsberg (froonts'perg), 165, 

174. 
Fuentes de Onor (fwen tas), 390. 
FU'nen, 283. 
Fust (fooet), 119. 

G 

Gaeta (ga a'ta), .56, 382, 416, 417. 

Gage, Gen., 344. 

Gallcia (Spain), 388. 

Galilee, 66. 

Galit'zin, 340. 

Gallicia (Austria), 50, 340. 

Gallipoli, 126. 

Galswintba, 19. 

Ga'ma, Vasco de, 132. 

Gambet'ta. 449-451. 

Gan'ges, 123, 433. 

Garibaldi (-de), 416, 417, 423, 424, 
426, 450. 

Gariglia'no (ga reel ya'no), 147, 
424. 

Garnier Pages (pa zha'),412. 

Garonne', 31. 

Gascony, Gascons, 95, 173. 

Gastein (-tine), 425. 

Gaul, 17, 19,32. 

Gauthier (go te a), 373, 374. 

Gaurides, 122. 

Ga'za, 69, 375. 

Gaz'na, Gaznevides, 61, 122-125. 

Gemblours (zhoN bloor'), 223. 

Geue'va, City, 183, 193, 203, 212, 
240,379,401,442,443. 
Lake, 110. 

Gen'oa, Genoese', 51, 52, 73, 78, 
112, 113, 133, 142, 151, 167, 168, 
175, 176, 192, 193, 196, 198, 249, 
328, 368-370, 374, 376, 416, 423. 

Geoi'gia, Georgians (Asia), 61, 
78, 12.% 341. 
U. S. A., 440, 441. 

Gepid*, 17, 23. 

Gerard, Balthazar (-zha zar'). 
226. 

German Confederation, 401, 413, 
414, 424-426. 

German Ocean, 16, 32, 38, 82. 

Germans, 17, 18, 32, 66, 68, 163, 
201. 

Germantown, 345. 

Germany, 17, 32, 37, 39, 44, 45, 63, 
70, 74, 77, 82-84, 91 , 96, 100, 104, 
107, 110, 117, 124, 163-166, 172, 
181, 182, 189, 190, 207, 233, 248, 
2.53-2.58, 291, 300, .301, 326-336, 
358, 377, 385, 388-391 , 395, 396, 
400, 403, 404, 414, 424-426, 445- 
451. 
Kings of— 
Arnulf (A. D. 887-899), 46. 
Conrad I. (911), .52. 
Henry the Fowler (918-936), 
52. 

Kom. Emperors— Otho I., 
et al. 

Gerona (ha ro'na), 390. 



Gertruydenberg (-troi-), 362. 
Gettysburg, 441. 
Ghent, 97, 184, 18.5, 214,217,218, 
223-225, 235, 280, 302, 327, 400. 
Ghib'elliues', 53, 80-85, 96, 168, 

175. 
Ghiber'te (-te), 122. 
Gibraltar, 31, 182, 238, 301, 305, 

324, 334, 346, 347. 
Girond'ists, 359, 361-366. 
Giurgevo, 420. 
Gjatsk,392. 
Glar'us, 165. 
Glatz, 325. 
Glogau (-gow'), 260. 
Gloucester (glos'ter), Dukes of, 

99. 
Glucksburg (glooks'boorg), 414, 

424. 
Go'a, 1,32, 313. 

God'frey of Bouillon, 63, 65, 66. 
Godoy (go do'ee), 367, 371. 
God'win, Earl, 49. 
Golden Fleece, 198, 215. 
Golet'ta, 182. 
Gonsal'vo de Cor'dova, 142, 145- 

147, 158. 
Good Hope, Cape of, 132, 318, 346, 

368. 
Gorgei (gur'ga), 415. 
Gort'chakoff, 422. 
6ortz,358. 

Goths, 18-26, 31, 37, 43, 283, 371. 
Kings of— 

Euric, 17,21. 

Theod'oric, 21,22, 25. 

Amalaric, 21. 

Athalaric, 22. 

Theodatus, Vitiges, 22. 

Totila, Teias, 23. 

Roderick, 31. 

Pelayo, 31, 42. 
Gran, 286, 415. 
Griina'da, 93, 115, 116, 390. 
Granson (graN son), 105. 
Grant, Gen., 441. 
Gran'velle, 212, 225. 
Grasse, Count de, 347. 
Gravelines (grav len'), 161, 275. 
Gravelotte (grav lot'), 448. 
Greece, 23-26, 37, 58, 62, 73, 127, 
209, 320, 408-410. 
Kings of— 

Otho, George, 410. 
Greek Empire. See Rom. Bmp. 

in East. 
Greek Fire, 31,65,118. 
Greek Language, 121. 
Greeks, 24, 28, 41, 43, 49, 56,340, 

407-410. 
Grego'rios, 408. 
Grenoble (gren obi"), 90, 104, 

389. 
Grey, Lady Jane, 197. 
Grisons (gre zon'), 248, 374. 
Gron'ingen, 215. 
Grossbeeren (-ba'ren), 393. 

468 



Gro'tius, 241. 

Grouchy (groo she'), 397. 

Grtins'berg, 335. 

Guadalete (gwa da la'ta), 31. 

Guadaloupe (ga da loop'), 347, 

367. 
Guadalupe' Hidal'go, 438. 
Guastalla (gwas tal'la), 379. 401. 
Guatemala (gwa ta ma'la), 312. 
Guatemozin (gwa te mo'zin), 

137. 
Guayaquil (gwi a keel'), 138. 
Guelders (gel'derz), 10.5, 184, 186, 

279. 
Guelfs (gwelfs), 80-83, 96, 113, 

175. 
Guiana (ge a'na), 280, 318. 
Guienne (ge en'), 151, 154, 172, 

193, 219, 220. 
Guinea (gin'e), 132. 
Guise, Cardinal of, 231. 
Count of, 172. 
Duke Claude of, 186, 191, 

192. 
Duke Francis of, 196, 201, 

202, 206. 
Duke Henry 1. of, 211, 220, 

230, 231. 
Duke Henry II. of, 261, 

262. 
Guises (geezes), 191-194, 202-205, 

211,219-223,231. 
Guizot (ge z6'), 411. 
Gilns, 180. 
Gusta'vus Va'sa, 245, 246. See 

Sweden. 
Gutenberg (goo'ten berg), 119. 
Gu'thrum, 47. 



Haar'lem, 119, 216. 
Ha'ganon', 47. 
Hague (haig), 307. 
Hagueiiau (ag'no), 70. 
Hainault (a no'), 224, 
Hal'berstadt', 251. 
Halifax, 344. 
Hal'le, 239, 240, 253. 
Halm'stadt, 284. 
Ham, 201, 406, 412. 
Ha'math, 66. 
Ham'burg, 385, 391, 393. 
Hampden, 268. 
Hanau (ha now'), 394. 
Han'over, Electorate, 298, 304, 

310, 332-336, 379, 383, 390, 394. 
Kingdom, 413, 414, 424, 425. 
Hanover, Kings of— 
Ernest Augustus (A. D. 1837), 

413. 
George (1851-1866), 425. 
Hanse Towns and League, 117, 

119, 246, .384,390. 
Hapsburgs, 85, 191, 193,199,200, 

204, 236-210, 242, 349, 361, 380, 

426. 
Har'ald Har'fagre, 43. 



ilar 



INDEX. 



Ita 



Haroun al Kascli'icl (ha roon'), 

37,40, 41. 
Harper's Ferry, 441. 
Harrison, 400. 
Has'tembeck', 331. 
Hast'ing the Viking, 46. 
Hastings, battle at, 49, 103. 

Warren, 429, 430. 
Hat'teras, 440. 
Havan'a, 136, 335. 
Havelock, 433, 434. 
Havre (av'r), 206, 295, 306, 333. 
Hawke, 334. 

Hays Saints (a saNt), 397. 
Haynau (.bi'now), 415. 
Hayti (ha tl), 133, 134, 312, 313, 

379. 
Hebertists (a'ber tists), 364, 365. 
Heem'skirk, 23S. 
Heidelberg (hi'-'), 243, 244, 366. 
Heilbronn (hil'bronn), 256, 257. 
Heinsius (hin'se us), 299. 
Hel'igoland, 424. 
Hellas, Helle'nes. See Greece, 

Greeks. 
Hel'lespont, 25, 43, 58, 69, 126. 
Hel'singborg', 261, 309. 
Helvetic Republic, 371, 377. 
Heni'ietta Maria, 249. 
Henry the Lion, 82, 83. 

son of Emp. Fred. II., 83. 

of Thuringia, 84. 

of Cornwall, 87. 

the Navigator, 132. 
Heracle'a, 51. 
Heraclius, exarch, 27. 
Herman von Salza, 79. 
Herrnhausen (-how'zen), 321. 
Heru'lians, 21. 

Od'oa'cer, King of, 17, 21 . 
Herzegovina (hert'seh go vee' 

na), 407. 
Hes'din, 167, 197. 
Hes'se, 333-335, 382, 394, 414, 449, 
451. 

Alexander of, 425. 

Philip, Landgrave of, 177, 
180, 189, 190, 194,195. 

Landgravine of. 413. 
Hil'debrand. See Pope Grego- 
ry VII. 
Hindu Kush (koosh), 123. 
Hindustan', 28, 30, 42, 78, 79, 123, 

124, 132-136, 235, 311,428-430. 
Hochkirchen (hoK keer Ken), 

Hochstadt.300. 
Ho'fer, Andrew, 388. 
Hogue, Cape la, 295. 
Hohenfriedberg (-freed-), 327. 
Hohenlin'den, 377. 
Holienlo'he, Count, 243. 

Prince, .383. 
Hohenstaufen (-stow'fen), 81- 

84, 90. 
Hohenzol'lern, 426. 

Sigmaring'en, 446, 447. 



117, 118, 



Holland, County 
213, 216, 227. 

Kepublic, 42, 248, 270, 277- 
280, 291, 295-3U0, 302, 307, 313- 
315, 319, 321, 322, 328, 346, 350, 
351, 362, 366, 368. 

Kingdom, 385, 394, 396, 405, 
445. 
Kings of— 
William I. (A. B. 1813-1840), 

394. 
William III. (1849), 445. 
Holstein (-stin), 82,245, 250, 251, 

261, 283, 413, 424, 425. 
Holstein-Got'torp, Dukes of, 
j 307, 310. 

[ Hol'yrood', 405, 
Hondu'ras, 135. 
Hongkong', 481, 443. 
j Horn, Count, 214, 215. 
j Swed. Gen., 256, 257. 

j Horuc, 182. 

I Hospitallers. See Knights of 
I St. John. 
, Hot'ze, 374. 
I Hougoumont 
I 397. 

I Howe, 345. 
Hubertsburg, 



(hoo goo moN), 



336. 



Hudson, Henry, 315. 
Hudson's Bay, 136, 304, 317, 318. 

Kiver, 277, 315, 345, 437. 
Hugh the Great of Paris, 47. 
Hugh of Vermandois (v§r maN 
dwa'), 64, 66. 
of Cyprus, 77. 
Hugo, Victor, 419. 
Huguenots, 203-207, 210, 211, 215, 
216, 219-224, 230-2.32, 237, 240, 
248-250,290-292,316,317. 
Hull, 399, 400. 

Hungary, 17, 23, 27, 63, 71, 74, 81, 
94, 100, 108, 110, 111, 124, 127, 
149, 160, 163, 170, 178, 180, 185, 
190, 195, 199, 209, 218, 219, 239, 
285,286,300, 301, 321, 324-327, 
350,388,403, 414,415,427. 
Kings of— 
Andrew II. (A. D. 1205-1235), 

74, 94. 
Louis the Great (1342-1382), 

99-101. 
Sigismund (1392-1437), 108. 
Ladislaus of Poland (1440- 

1444), 111. 
Ladislaus (1453), 111, 160. 
Matthias Corvinus(145S-1490), 

111, 122, 178. 
Louis II. (1516), 160, 178. 
Ferdinand I. (1526), 178-180, 

185, 190, 191, 198. 
John Zapolya (rival), 178-180, 

185. 
[See Emperors of the Romans 

to Charles VI.] 
Maria Theresa (1740), 321-327, 
330, 331, .3.36, 340, 350. See Ro- 

469 



mans, and Austria, Empe- 
rors of. 

Huniades, (-ya'daz), 110, HI. 

Huns, 23, 27, 36. 

Huron, Lake, 317. 

Huss, Hussites, 108, 109, 164, 165, 
199. 



Ibeg, 127. 

Ibrahim (eeb'ra heem'), 409, 410. 

Iceland, 100, 131. 

Ico'uium, 69, 126. 

India, British in, 372, 428-430. 

India'na, 317. 

Indies, 212, 222, 238, 302, 387. 
East,311,313, 345, 388. 
West, 135, 272, 313, 318, 336i, 
345, 346, 366, 368, 385. 

Indus, 123, 431. 

Ingoldstadt, 254, 388. 

Ingria, 283,308. 

Innsbruck, 195, 281, 388. 

Illinois, 317. 

Illyr'ia, Illyrians, 18,62, 389,394. 

Inkerniann', 421. 

Inquisition, Flemish, 212, 213. 

Ionian Isles, 371, 378, 410. 

Ireland, 16, 17, 86, 87, 238, 269, 
270. 

Irene, 36, 40, 41. 

Ireton, 273. 

Irno'rius, Werner, 120. 

Iroquois (ir'o kwoy'), 316, 317. 

Isabel of Jerusalem, 69, 74. 

Iser (ee'zer), 426. 

Islam, 30, 110. 

Ispahan', 125. 

Ismail (is ma eel'), 391. 

Isola della Sca'la (ee'so la-), 152. 

Issoire (is swar'), 189. 

Is'tria, 36, 41,51. 

Italy, Italians, 19-27, 33-46, 49- 
53, 56, 62, 74, 79-85, 93-100, 109, 
112-114, 117-119, 121, 122, 133, 
140-158, 167-176, 179, 182-189, 
192-194, 196, 199, 201, 237, 248, 
285, 297-301, 304, 320, 323, 328, 
349, 350, 368-381, 385-388, 395, 
396, 402, 403, 406, 408, 413, 415, 
416, 422-426, 453. 
Kings of— 
[Rom. Emperors of the West, 
Charlemagne to Charles 
III.] 
Berengar I. (A. D. 888-924), 

46, 52. 
Guy (8,89), Lambert (896), 46, 

52. 
Louis of Aries (900-905), 52. 
Rudolph of Burgundy (922), 

52. 
Hugh of Provence (926), 52, 

53. 
Lothaire II. (945), 53. 
Berengar II., Adalbert (950- 
961), 52, 53. 



Ita 



INDEX. 



Leo 



Italy- 
[Kom. Emp. and Kings of 
Germany, Kings of Naples, 
Sardinia, etc.] 
Victor Emmanuel (1861), 424- 
426, 453. 
Iturbide (e toor'be'da), 402. 
Ivrea (e vra'a), 44, 52. 
Ivry (e vre';, 232. 



Jackson, 400, 439. 
Jac'obins, 357-362, 365, 366. 
Jacquerie (zhali'a re'), 98. 
Jaffa, 66, 68-71,75, 76. 
Jagellon dynasty, 246. 
Jagerndorf (ya'Gern-), 332. 
Jamaica, 134, 135, 271. 
James Elver, 441. 
Jamestown, 314. 
Janizaries, 102, 126, 127, 140, 160, 

180, 209, 245, 310. 
Jankowitz, 261. 
Jansenists, 305. 
Japan', 200, 235, 313, 314, 443. 
Jarnac (zhar'nak), 207. 
Jassy (yas'se), 245, 342. 
Ja'va, 235, 318. 
Jay, 317. 
Jefferson, 399. 
Jeffreys, George, 292, 293. 
Jehan, Shah, 124. 
Jellachicli (yel'la kik), 415. 
Jemappes (zhe map'), 361. 
Jena (ya'nii), 383. 
Jerome of Prague, 109. 
Jerusalem, 37, 49, 61, 62, 65-70, 

74-77, 125, 126, 180. 
Kings of— 
Godfrey (A. D. 1099), 65, 66. 
Baldwin I. (1100), 64, 66. 
Guy of Lusignan (1186), 68-70, 

149. 
Conrad of Montferrat (1192), 

69, 70. 
Henry of Champagne (1192), 

70. 
Almeric of Lusignan (1197), 74. 
John of Brienne (1210), 74, 75. 
Jesuits, 199, 200, 218, 221, 227, 233, 

236, 239-243, 247, 287, 305, 313, 

317-320, 348, 349, 414. 
Jews, 21, 29, 30, 63, 93, 100, 115, 

116, 305, 338. 
Joan of Arc, 102. 
Joanna, Queen of Aragon, 115. 
John of Austria, 199, 209, 223. 
Jiohn of Austria, archduke, 377, 

381, 388. 
John Casimir, Prince Palatine, 

219, 224, 230. 
John of Cap'istran, 111. 
John Comne'nus, 58. 
John of Gaunt, 99. 
John Huss, 108. 

John of Procida (pro'che da), 84. 
Johnson, Andrew, 442. 



Josephine, Empress, 389. 
Joubert (zhoo ber'), 374. 
Jourdan (zhoor doN'), 368, 373. 
Juarez (hwa'reth), 444, 445. 
Julian, Count, 31. 
Jiiliers (zhil'le a'), 184, 186, 239, 

240, 260. 
Junot (zhii no'), 372, 382, 387. 
Jutland, 250, 251, 424. 

K 

Kabyles, 411. 
Kah'lenberg, 286. 
Kaiserswerth (ki' zers vert'), 

300. 
Kalafat, 420. 

Ka'leb Medina (-dee'na), 410. 
Kansas, 439. 

Ka'ra Mus'tapha,-285, 286. 
Kashgar, 125. 
Katz'bach, 393. 

Kaunitz (kow'nits), 330, 340, 350. 
Kearney, 433. 
Kempeu, 260. 
Kentucky, 439. 
Kepler, 233. 
Keresz'tes, 234. 
Kertch, 421. 
Kes'selsdorf, 327. 
Khev'enhtlUei-, 325. 
Khoras'mia, Khorasmians, 75, 

126. 
Khorassan, 123. 
Kiel (keel), 424. 
Kiev (ke ef), 43, 124, 342. 
Kilia, 391. 
Kilidge Arslau, 63. 
Killiecran'kie, 294. 
Kirke, Colonel, 293. 
Kleber (kla'ber), 372, 377. 
Klesel (kla'zel), 242. 
Klo'ster, 334. 

Seven, 332. 
Klundert (kloon'dert), 362. 
Knut, 47. 
Kolin, 332. 
Konigsberg, 299, 384. 
Konigsgratz,426. 
Konigsmark, 263. 
Kopro'li, Achmet, 285. 

Blus'tapha, 287. 
Koran,30, 31, 169. ■ 
Kor'sakoff', 374. 
Kos'cius'ko, 384. 
Kossuth, L. (kosh shoot'), 403, 

414, 415. 
Koster, Laurence, 119. 
Kot'zebue, 404. 
Kouli Khan (koo'le), 324. 
Kublai Khan (koob li-), 124. 
Kufstein (koofstine), 189, 388, 

422. 
Kunersdorf (koo'ners-), 333. 
Kunobitza, 110. 
Kutschuk Kainardji (koo 

chook' ka nar'ge), 341. 
Kutusoff (koo too'soff ), 392. 

470 



Laaland (law'land), 283. 
Labrador, 136. 
Labuan, 436. 

Lafayette', 34.0, 356-359, 397, 404. 
Lahore', 123, 432. 
Lamartine', 412. 
Lambert, Gen., 272. 
Lancaster, House of, 103, 112, 

156, 229. 
Lan'dau (-dow), 300. 
Landscro'na, 261, 284. 
Landshut (landz'hoot), 334. 
Lang'eland, 283. 
Lang'ensal'za, 426. 
Langside, 210. 
Langton, Stephen, 87. 
Languedoc (Ion geh dok'), 219, 

317. 
Lannes (Ian), 372, 383. 
Lannoy, 172. 
Laou (lii ON'), 47, 395. 
La Palisse (la pa leess'), 153. 
La Plata, 312. 
La Salle', 437. 
Las Cas'as, 137, 313. 
Latin Race, 324, 444. 
Lateran, 81, 89. 
Latour (la toor),415. 
Laud, 268. 

Laudon (low'don), 334. 
Lauenburg (low'en boorg'), 424, 

425. 
Launay (lo'na), 355. 
Laurens, 317. 
Lausanne (15 zan'), 371. 
Lautrec (Id trek), 157, 158, 167, 

168, 175. 
Lavater, 374. 
Law, John, 320, 321. 
Lawrence, Sir H., 432, 433. 
Laybach (li'bak), 388, 408. 
League, The, 220, 222, 230-232. 
of Cambray, 148-151. 
ofPublic Weal, 104. 
of Smalcald, 180, 184, 189, 

195. 
" Holy " in Italy, 151-154. 
" Holy " in Germany, 239, 

242-244. 
Lebceuf(lehbuf'), 448. 
Lebrun (leh bruN), 376, 380. 
Lech, Riv., 253. 
Leclerc (leh kler'), 378. 
Ledrli-KoUin' (-laN'), 412. 
Lee, embassador, 345. 

Gen., 441, 442. 
Lefevrev-fev'r'), 38S. 
Leghorn, 113. 
Legna'no (len ya'no), 82. 
Leicester (les'ter), Earl of, 228. 
Leipzig (lip'sik), 253, 258, 26fli 

327, 333, 383, 394, 403. 
Lem'berg, 415 
Lens, 263. 
Leon (la on'), 93, 114, 135. 



Leo 



INDEX. 



Mar 



Leonar'do da Vinci (vin'chee). 

. 122, 145. 
Leopold of Styr'ia, 239, 240, 251, 

252, 260, 262. 
Lepan, 109. 
Lepan'to, 209. 
Ler'ida, 302. 
Leslie, Gen., 268. 
Leuthen (loi'ten), 332. 
Levant', 113, ISO, 184. 
Lewes (hi'ess), 87. 
Lexington, 344. 
Leyden(li'den),216, 217. 
Leyva, Antonio de, 173. 
Libui'nia, 36. 
Liege (le azli'), 300. 
Liegnitz (leeg'nits), 124, 334. 
Liesna (lees'na), 309. 
Ligny (leen'ye), 397. 
Ligurian Republic, 370, 377, 380. 
Lille (leel), 302, 359. 
Lincoln, Gen., 346. 

President, 439-442. 
Linz (lintsj, 325. 
Lip'pe-Schaumburg (-showm' 

boorg), 335. 
Lisbon, 221, 229, 259, 349, 387, 390, 

402. • 
Lithua'nia, 50, 79, 282, 308, 392, 

406. 
Livo'nia, 50, 79, 117, 283, 340. 
Locar'no, 153. 
Lochlev'en, 210. 
Locke, Jolin, 315. 
Lodi^lo'dee), 171,369. 
Loire (Iwiir), 16, 17, 364, 452. 
Lombards, Lombardy, 23,24,27, 

34, 35, 49-52, 56, 66, 72, 82-84, 

93, 117, lis, 144, 152, 154, 158, 

168, 179, 1S3, 201, 299, 369, 403, 

415, 416, 423. 
Kings of— 
Alboin, 23, 24. 
Clepho, Autharis, Agilulf, 

Rotliaris, 24. 
Astolphus, 34. 
Deside'rius, 35. 
London, 46, 88, 98. 117, 118, 234, 

272, 273, 277, 292, 293, 326, 379, 

384, 410, 414, 434, 435, 449. 
Londonderry, 294. 
Longi'nus, 23. 
Longwy, 360. 
Loo, 350. 

Lookout Mountain, 441. 
Lo'pez, 445. 
Lorraine', 46, 48, 63, 64, 71, 105, 

112, 139, 169, 172, 177, 187, 191, 

192, 195, 257, 297, 322, 358, 449, 

452. 
Duke Charles of, 276, 280, 

286, 295. 
Duke Leopold of, 297, 298. 
Duke Francis of, 323. See 

Rom. Emp., Francis I. 
Charles, Cardinal of, 192, 

201,202. 



Lorraine', Prince Charles of, 

327, 328, 332. 
Louis of Nassau, 210, 215, 216. 
Louisa of Savoy', 156, 168, 172. 
Lou'isbourg, 328. 
Louisia'ua, Territory, 318, 320, 

330, 336, 343, 377, 379, 437. 
State, 440. 
Louvaiu', 46, 214, 295, 405. 
Louvois (loo-vwa'), 279, 291, 295. 
Louvre (loovr'j, 230, 452. 
Lo'wendahl, 328. 
Lowenhaupt, 309. 
Lowestoff, 277. 
Lowositz (16'vo sits), 331. 
Loyo'la, 199. 

Hl'beo, 69, 251, 252, 383, 391, 393. 
Lublin (loo'blin), 124, 308. 
Luck'no\v,433, 434. 
Luines (Iween), 241. 
Lunden (loon'den), 284. 
Luneville (lu na vil), 377, 379. 
Lusatia, 80, 244, 327. 
Luther, M., 102-168, 176, 177,254. 
Lutherans, 172, 174, 179, 180, 184, 

185, 194, 246. 
Lutter (loot'ter), 250. 
Lutzen (loot'sen), 254-256, 393. 
Luxembourg, House of, 96, 97. 
Duchy, 186, 187, 195, 202, 

223, 261, 277, 290, 405, 445. 
Marshal, 279. 
Duke of, 295. 
Lyons, 32, 84, 146, 151, 170, 360, 

364. 
Lysip'pus, 72. 

M 
Maca'o, 313. 
Macdonald, .374, 393. 
Macedonia, 62. 
Machiavelli (mak ke a vel'lee), 

143, note. 
Mack, Gen., 373, 380-383. 
Mackay', Gen., 294. 
MacMah'on, 423, 448. 
Macqua'rie, 435. 
Madei'ra, 117, 1.S2, 133. 
Madison, 399. 
Madras', 318, 328, 429. 
Madrid', 159, 172,173, 298,301,387, 

391, 402, 411, 446. 
Msean'der, 67. 
Maestricht (mas'trikt), 217, 225, 

279. 
Mag'deburg, 190, 193, 194, 251, 

252, 383. 
Magel'lan, 137. 
Magen'ta, 423. 
Magnan (man yoN), 418. 
Magna'no (man ya'no), 373. 
Magyars, 44, 52, 53, 325, 403, 413- 

415. 
Mahmoud of Gazna, 123. 
Mahrat'tas, 428, 430. 
Maida (mi'da), 382. 
Maine in Prance, 86, 105, 140. 

471 



Maine, U.S., 317. 

Mainotes,407. 

Maintenon (maNt'noN), 290, 

Malac'ca, 318, 368. 

Mal'aga, 116, 390. 

Malakoff, 422. 

Ma'lek Shah, 61, 125, 126. 

Sa'la, 127. 
Malplaquet (mal plii ka'), 303. 
Malta, 79, 170, 208, 372, 377-379, 

420. 
Mamelukes, 76, 77, 127, 372. 
Mandat (maN da'), 360. 
Mandeville, 120. 
Manfred, 84. 

Blanhattan. See New York. 
Mannheim (-hime), 394, 404. 
Mansfield, Agnes of, 234. 

Counts of, 234, 242-244, 250. 
Mantchoo Tartars, 124. 
Manteuffel (-toi'fel), 425, 426, 

452. 
Man'tua, HI, 369, 373, 388, 422, 

423. 
Maoris, 436. 

Marat (ma ra'), 360, 363. 
Marco Polo, 79, 124. 
Blardyk, 261. 
Maren'go, 376, 377, 383. 
Margaret of Anjou, 103, 112. 

of France, daughter of 

Francis I., 202. 
of Navarre, sister of Fr. 

I., 172, 181, 194. 
of Valois, grand daughter 

ofFr. I., 211, 221, 236. 
Margat, 77. 

Maria Leczin'ska, 321, 323. 
Maria Louisa, Empress, 389, 

401. 
Louisa, Infanta, 411, 445. 
There'sa, Empress. See 

Hungary. 
There'sa, Queen of Louis 

XIV., 276-278. 
Marie Antoinette, 355, 363. 
Marienburg (ma re'en boorg), 

223. 
in Prussia, 284. 
Marignano (ma I'en ya'no), 157, 

423. 
Marion, 317. 
Marlborough, 280, 295, 299-302, 

305. 
Marmont, 395, 404. 
Maro'zia, 52. 
Marsaglia (-sal'ya), 295. 
Marseillaise (mar sal yaz),359. 
Marseilles (mar salz'), 171, 183, 

187. 
Mars la Tour (mar la toor'), 

448. 
Marston Moor, 268. 
Martinique (-neek'), 347, 367. 
Martinsbi'Uck, 373. 
Martinuzzi (-noot'se), 195. 
Mary of Montferrat, 74. 



Mar 



INDEX. 



Mua 



Maiy of Mo'dena, 294. 

of Guise, 191,193,205. 
Tudor, Queen of France, 
155. 
Empress, 218. 
Queen of Hungary, 198. 
Maryland, 315, 317, 441. 
Masaccio (ma sat'cho), 122. 
Mason, 440. 

Massachusetts, 314, 317, 344. 
Massena (-sa'na), 371, 374, 3S2, 

390. 
Massillon (mas se yoN'), 306. 
Massou'rah, 76. 
Matilda of Tuscany, 55, 80, 81. 

of England, 86. 
Matthi'as, archduke, 223-225, 
239, 242. See Kom. Emperor 
Matthias I. 
Maupas (mo pa'), 418. 
Mavrocorda'tos, 409. 
Maximilian of Bavaria, 239, 244, 

254, 263. 
Mayenne', 231, 232. 
Mazarin (ma za raN'), 260, 261, 

271,274-276,326. 
Mazep'pa, 309. 

Mazzini (mat se'ne), 415, 41S. 
Meaux (mo), 98, 189, 360. 
Mecca, 29, 30, 125. 
Mechlin (mek'lin), 154, 216. 
Mecklenburg, 82, 1 17, 252. 
Medici (med'e che), Family, 175, 
179, 201, 320, 323. 
Cosmo de', 114. 
Lorenzo de', 114, 121, 122, 
153. 
Piero de', 141. 
John de'. Cardinal. See 
Pope Leo X. 
Julian de', 153, 154. 
Lorenzo II., 154, 158. 
Giulio de'. Cardinal. See 
Pope Clement VII. 

Catherine de', 181, 194, 203- 
207, 210,221,231. 
Mariede',236, 240, 241. 
Cosmo de', gr. duke, 201. 
Medina (-de'na), 30. 

del Bio Seco (-re'o sa'ko), 
387. 
Mediterranean, 15, 25,32,38-41, 
48,51,61, 70, 89, 112, 117, 126, 
1.33, 140, 1S2, 196, 208, 209, 2S0, 
301-303, .306, 340, 378, 385, 409. 
Meerut, 433. 
Mehemet Ali, 409, 410. 
Meissen (mi'sen), 327. 
Melanc'thon, ISO. 
Melas (mil'las), 376, 377, 383. 
Mel'bourne, 435. 
Meni'el,332. 
Memphis, U. S., 138. 
Menou (mun oo'), 377. 
Mentz, 56, 253, 366, 368. 

Electors of, 90, 160, 163, 177, 
193, 278, 358. 



Men'sohikoff, 323, 420, 421. 
Mercia, 42, 

Mei-cy, Gen. von (mer'see'), 261. 
Merovingians, 18-20, 32, 220. 
Merseburg (-boorg), 53. 
Mesopota'mia, 64, 160. 
Messina (-se'na), 23, 182. 
Met'ternich (-nik), 413. 
Metz, 19, 194-196, 202, 261, 263, 

326, 358, 447, 448, 450. 
Meudon (mil doN'), 450. 
Meuse, 15, 17, 38, 184,217,229, 448. 
Mexico, Mexicans, 136, 137, 157, 

184, 312, 402, 437-439, 444, 445. 
City of, 438, 444. 
Blaximilian, Emperor of, 

444, 445. 
Blichael Angelo, 122, 151, 179. 
Michigan, 317, 399. 
Miguel of Portugal, 402. 
Mil'an, 22, 52, 82, 83, 98, 109, 112- 

114, 140, 144, 149, 151-158, 167, 

168, 173-175, 183, 185, 199, 204, 

233, 234, 248, 261, 298, 304, 328, 

369, 370, 373, 376, 380, 384, 416, 

423. 
Milecz, 108. 
Mincio, 376, 394, 416. 
Min'den,333. 
Ming Dynasty, 124. 
Mingre'lia, 341. 
Minor'ca, 331, 336, 346. 
Miollis (meol le),.386. 
Mirabeau (me ra bo), 356, 358. 
Miran'dola, 151. 
Mirowitch, 337. 
Missionary Ridge, 441. 
Mississippi Kiver, 138, 314,316- 

318, 330, 336, 346, 347, 437, 440, 

441. 
Scheme, 320. 
State of, 439. 
Missolonghi (-ge), 409. 
Missouri, 439. 
Mod'ena, 167, 369, 370, 377, 401, 

422, 423. 
Modoc, 443. 
Mohacz, 178, 179, 286. 
Mohammed, 29, 30, 33, 61, 95. 

of Gaur, 123. 
Mohammedans, Moslem, 28-33, 

52, 65, 66, 70, 76, 78, 111_, 118, 

123-128, 132, 179, 187, 421, 429. 
Molay, Jacques de, 95. 
Moldavia, 17, 23, 234, 245, 309, 340, 

341, 387, 391, 407, 420, 422. 
Moliere (mo le er'), 306. 
Molino del Rey (-le'no del ra'), 

438. 
Molhvitz, 325. 
Moluc'cas, 238. 
Moncey, 387. 

Moncontour (-toor'), 207. 
Mongolians, Moguls, 78,95, 123, 

124,311, 428,429. 
Blonk, Gen., 270, 272, 368. 
Monmouth, Earl of, 293. 

472 



Mons (moNSS), 216, 290, 303, 

328. 
Monselice (-sa le'cha), 150. 
Montauban (moN to boN'), 207, 

219, 250. 
Montcalm, 3Si. 
Mont Cenis (moN seh ne'), 36,. 

71, 157, 366, 376. 
Mon'tebel'lo, 423. 
Monte Cassino (-se'no), 90. 
Montecuculi (-koo'ko le), 278, 

279, 285. 
Montemo'lin, 411. 
Montene'gro, 407. 
Montenot'te, 368. 
Montereau (-r5'),395. 
Monterey (-ra'j,438, 444. 
Monte Suello. 426. 
Montezuma, 137, 157. 
Montferrat, Hii, 179. 

Conrad, Marquis of, 68-70. 
Montfort Family, 98, 106. 
Simun de, father, 89. 
Simiiu de, son, 87, 88. 
Mont Geiievre. 157. 
Montgomery, Count, 203. 

City, 440. 
Montigny (moN teen'ye), 215. 
Mont I'heri (iikin la're), 104. 
Montmartre uiioN martr''), 355, 

395, 452, 
Montmedy (-ma'de), 186,358. 
Montmorejicy, 1S4, 185, 191-194, 

202, 20.'>-2ll7, 230. 
Monto'ne Braccio, 109. 
Montpensier (mox poN se a'), 

Dukes of. 142, 411, 445, 446. 
Mdlle. de, 274. 
Montreal', Us, 317, 318, 334. 
Montrose, 269, 
Moore, Sir J., 388, 
Moors, 31, 38, 73, 77, 115, 116, 118. 

140, 160, 169,221,305. 
Morat (-ra'), 105. 
Moravia, 124, 239, 243, 260, 285, 

381,389,415. 
More'a, 110, 113, 180, 287, 340, 408, 

409. 
Moreau (-ro), 368, 373, 374, 377, 

380. 
Morgar'ten, 96. 
Morgel, 388, 
Bloriscoes, 208, 237. 
Morny, Count de, 418. 
Moro'ne, 173, 174. 
Morosini (-se'ne), 287. 
Blortara (-ta'ra), 145. 
Mortier (mor te a'), 395. 
Moscow, 124, 234, 308, 392, 394. 
Moselle', 257, 261,301. 
Mo'sul, 64, 
Mlihlberg, 190. 
Miihldorf, 97. 

Miihlhausen (-hovif'zen), 56. 
Muley Hassan, 182. 

Mohammed, 221. 
Miinden, 2.7O. 



Mun 



INDEX. 



Ori 



Munich (mu'nik), 82, 261, 301, 

325, 327, 377, 3S0. 
Mtinnich, 324. 
Munster, 262, 263, 290, 333. 
Miinsterthal (-tal), 373. 
Munzer, Thos. (moont'ser), 177. 
Blurat (mil ra'), 372, 373, 383, 387, 

393, 394. 
Musa, 31. 

Muscovy, 237, 286. See Russia. 
Mus'tapha, 245. 
Muta, 30. 
Mysore', 429, 430. 

N 
Na'dir Shah, 124, 324. 
Namur (na mtir'), 223, 295, 296, 

328. 
^Ja'ua SS'hib, 433. 
Nancy(noN'se), 105. 
Nankin', 431. 
Nantes, 364. 

Edict of, 232, 291, 316. 
Naples, 24, 56, 115, 142, 175, 262. 
Kingdom of, 50, 83, 84, 93, 
94, 96, 99-101, 112, 140-150, 158, 
159, 167, 173, 183, 186, 187, 193, 
261, 302, 304, 323, 349, 373, 377, 
382, 387, 422, 424. 
Sovereigns of— 
Charles I. of Anjou (A. D. 

1265-1285), 84, 85, 90, 99. 
Kobert the Wise (1309), 99. 
Joanna I. (1343), 99-101. 
Charles of Durazzo (1382), 100, 

101, 112. 
Louis I. of Anjou (1382-1384), 

99,101. 
Joanna II. (1414-1434), 109, 112, 

144. 
Alfonso I. (V. of Aragon, 

1435), 112-115. 
Ferdinand I. (1458), 111. 
Alfonso II. (1494), 141. 
Ferdinand II. (1495), 141-143. 
Frederic III. (1496), 143, 145, 

148. 
[See Aragon, Ferdinand, K. 
of; Kings of Spain to Phil- 
ip v.; Rom. Emp. Charles 
VI., and Kings of the two 
Sicilies.] 
Napoleon Bonaparte, 37, 364, 

367-399, 404, 446. 
Narbonne', 32, 34. 
Nar'ses, 23, 34. 
Nar'va, 307, 308. 
Naseby,268. 

Navarino (na va re'no), 409. 
Navarre', .36, 90, 93, 114, 115, 147, 
1.52, 154, 159, 166, 167, 192, 203. 
Sovereigns of— 
John II. of Aragon, 114. 
Blanche, Eleanor, 115. 
Henry d'Albret, 192. 
Antony, 203-206. 
Jane d'Albret, 211. 



Henry III., 207, 211, 219-222, 

230, 231. 
[Kings of France from Henry 

IV.] 
Navar'ro, Pedro, 156, 157. 
Nazareth, 66, 75, 77. 
Nebraska, 439. 
Necker, 352-356. 
Nelson, Adm., 372, 377, 381. 
Nemours (neh moor'), 222. 
Nerac', 221. 
Netherlands, 82, 97, 101, 105, 106, 

113, 118, 140, 154-156, 159, 167, 

171, 181-189, 193-201, 210, 212- 

218, 221-233,235, 238, 240, 246, 

257. 
Spanish, 259-261, 275-278, 

290, 295, 300-302. 
Austrian, 304, 321, 326-328, 

332, 342, 350, 351, 361, 366, 370, 

395. 
United (Dutch Republic), 

212, 216, 224-229, 232, 235, 238, 

250, 262, 263, 277-279, 300, 324, 

328, 346. 
Neuberg (noi berg), 239, 240, 292. 
Neuchatel (nush a tel'), 304, 382, 

401. 
Neuhausel (noi'howzel), 285. 
Neumark (noi-), 251. 
Neustria, 19, 20. 
Neva, 308, 311. 

Newbury, 268 [34-1. 

New England, 131, 314, 316, 328, 
New'foundland, 138,304,318. 
New Hampshire, 314, 347. 
New Jersey, 278, 315, 345. 
New Netherlands, 315. 
New Orleans, 320, 400, 440. 
Newport, 138. 
New South Wales, 435. 
Newton Butler, 294. 
New York, 138, 278, 315-318, 343- 

345. 
New Zealand, 428, 435, 436. 
Ney (na), 383, 393, 397. 
Niag'ara, 399, 400. 
Nice in Bithynia, 40, 61, 63, 64, 

73, 126. 
in France, 52, 183, 187, 368, 

369. 
Nic'omedi'a, 126. 
Nicop'olis, 127. 
Nicosia, 209. 
Niel (neel), 446. 
Niemen (nee'men), 384, 392. 
Niethard (neet'hard), 278, 
Nieuport (nu'port), 238, 327. 
Nightingale, F., 421. 
Nile, 27, 74, 372, 375. 
Nimeguen (ne raa'gen), 216, 280, 

290, 297. 
Nin'eveh, 15, 27. 
Ningpo, 431. 
Nie'ibis, 410. 

Nismes (neem), 219, 401. ■ 
Noailles (no av'), 296, 326, 345. 

473 



Nogaret (no ga ra'), 94. 
Nordlingen (n0.rt'ling en), 256j 

257,261,381. 
Nor'mandy, 47, 64, 70, S6, 172. 
Normans, Northmen, 16, 35, 37j 

43-50, 64, 121,371. 
North Foreland, 277. 
Northumberland, 197. 
Norway, 16, 43, 49, 63, 94, 117 245, 

246, 394. 
Notre Dame (notr dam), 363. 
Noured'din, 68. 
Nova'ra, 145, 155, 168, 416. 
Nova Scotia, 138,304, 318. 
Nov'gorod', 43, 117. 
Novi (no've), 374. 
Noyon (noh yoN'), 159, 201. 
Nu'remberg, 180, 253, 254. 
Ny mphenburg (-boorg), 324, 326. 
Nystadt, 310. 



Gates, Titus, 292. 

Oczakoff, 342. 

Oder, 16, 36, 263, 391, 394. 

Odin, 18. 

Offa, 42. 

Ogdensburgh, 399. 

Ohio River, 330, 334,439. 

Oldenburg, 245, 391, 394, 424. 

Christian of, 245. 
Olga, 50. 

Ollivier (ol le've a'), 446, 448. 
Ol'mutz,260, 285. 
Oltenit'za, 420. 
Omar, Caliph, 31, 65. 

Pasha, 420. 
Ommy'ah, Ommiades, 32, 33, 40, 

208. 
Onta'rio,.317, 399. 
Oppfede, Baron d', 188. 
Opslo, 246. 
Oran, 160,347. 
Orange, Principality, 213. 

Prince Philibert of, 174, 
179. 

-Nassau, House of, 179, 
304, 405. 

-Nassau, William I., Pr. 
of, 198, 212-218, 223-227, 241. 

-Nassaxi, Maurice, Prince 
of, 227-229, 233, 238, 241-243, 
250. 

-Nassau, Frederic Henry, 
Prince of, 250. 

-Nassau, William Heni'y, 
Prince of, 277-280, 288, 291- 
295. 

[See England, K. William 
III. of.] 
-Nassau, William IV., 328. 
-Nassau, William V., 350, 
366. 

-Nassau, William Fred- 
eric, 383, 394. See Holland, 
William I., King of. 
Orino'co, 135. 



Ork 



INDEX. 



Pop 



Orkneys, 229, 270, 

Or'leans, 88, 102, 205, 206, 360, 

450. 
House of, in France, 144, 

155, 157, 405. 
Duke Louis of, bro. of 

Charles VI., 101. 
Duke Louis of, 106, 142. 

Louis XII., K. of France. 
Duke Charles of, 113. 
Duke Gaston of, 274, 275, 

291. 
Duke Philippe II., Kegent 

of France, 319-321. 
Duke Louis Philippe (Eg- 

alite), 355, 361, 863. 
Duke Louis Philippe. See 

France, Louis Philippe, K. 

of. 
Orloff', Alexis, 337, 339. 
Ormuz, Gulf, 132, 313. 
Orsini (-se'ne), 99, 100. 
Orthez (or ta'), 395. 
Orthogrul, 126. 
Ortok, 126. 
Osnabriick, 262. 
Ostend, 238. 
Ostrach, 373. 
Ostrogoths, 17-23. 
Oswe'go, 334. 
Otran'to,23, 111. 
Ot'tawa, 317. 
Ottoman Empire, 123, 125-127, 

140, Ml, 160,209,234,323. 
Oude (owd), 432, 433. 
Oudenarde (ow'de nar'deh), 216, 

290, 302, 327. 
Oudinot (oo'de no), 393, 417. 
Overys'sel, 279. 
Oxenstiern (-steern), 247, 256, 

261. 
Oxford, 108, 120. 



Pacific Ocean, 135-137, 435, 439. 

Pad'ua, 149, 1.50, 243. 

Palat'inate, 244, 253, 255, 258, 259, 
280,291,292, 297,301,324. 

Paler'mo, 85, 304, 323, 373, 403. 

Palestine, 48, 49, 62, 66, 69-78, 
420. 

Palika'o, 448. 

Palmerston, 421. 

Pa'los, 133, 134. 

Pampelu'na, 159, 199, 394. 

Pan'dours, 325. 

Panno'nia, 36. 

Piira', 134. 

Pai-'aclete, 81. 

Par'aguay, 200, 349. 

Paris, 43-46, 81, 88, 95, 98, 101, 
102, 106, 171, 172, 189, 199-203, 
211, 230-232, 241, 258, 274, 275, 
330, 336, 347, 350, 355-369, 374- 
377, 380, 383, 388, 389, 393-400, 
404, 405, 411-413, 418-420, 422, 
446-453. 



Parma, 153, 168, 192, 193, 320, 328, 
369, 379, 401, 422, 423. 
Alexander, Prince and D. 

of, 223-229, 232. 

Margaret, Duchess of, 212- 
214. 
Par'thenon, 287. 
Par'theuope'an Republic, 373. 
Paskie'vitch, 420. 
Passarowitz, 319. 
Passau (pas'sow), 195, 196, 251. 
Patay', 102. 
Pau (po), 446. 
Pauliciaus, 42, 56. 
Pavia (pa vee'a), 19, 22, 23, 34, 35, 

52,82,153,171-175,328. 
Pelay'o, 31, 42. 
Pel'opoune'sus, 407. 
Pembroke, 76, 87. 
Penn, Adm.,271. 

AVilliam, 316. 
Pennsylvania, 441. 
Penob'scot, 314. 
Pensaco'la, 346. 
Perpignan (per peen yoN'), 186, 

260. 
Perry, Com., 400. 
Persia, Persians, 17, 25-30, 58, 

123, 124, 160, 178, 185, 235, 313, 

401. 
Chosroes, King of, 27. 
Persigny (-seen'ye), 418. 
Peru, 137, 184, 312, 402. 
Perugia, 167, 168. 
Pesca'ra, 171-174. 
Peschiera (pes ke a ra), 373, 423. 
Pesth (pest), 185, 286, 287, 415. 
Peter, the Hermit, 62, 63. 

du Breuil, 188. 
Petersburg, St., 247, 308,311,350, 

392, 406,441,449. 
Peterwardein (-din), 288. 
Petrarch, 98, 121. 
Philadelphia, 316, 344, 345, 347. 
Philip of Hohenstaufen, 83. 
Philippine Is., 137, 312, 335, 336. 
Philipsburg, 257, 292. 
Phcenicians, 16. 
Phrygians, 43, 67. 
Piacetiza (pe a chen'za), 62, 153, 

168, 192, 194, 320, 328, 379, 401. 
Piagnoni (pe an yo'ne;, 143. 
Piave (pe a'va), 388. 
Pic'ardy, 172, 173, 183, 186, 220. 
Piccolomini (-lom'e nee), 256, 

257. 
Pichegru (pesh grtl), 368. 
Pied'mont, 183, 187, 188, 202, 295, 

300, 369, 379, 403, 425. 
Piguerol (pen ye rol'), 263, 374. 
Pilsen,242, 256. 
Pinzon (pen thon'), 136. 
Pir'na, 259, 331. 
Pisa (pee'sa), 51, 52, 81, 113, 149, 

323. 
Pisid'ia, 67. 
Pisis'tratus, 90, 114. 

474 



Pitt, William, 332, 335, 362, 380, 

381, 430. 
Pizar'ro, 137. 
Plantag'euets, 77, 86. 
Plassy, 429. 
Plato, 122. 
Plattsburg, 400. 
Plessis les Tours (ples'se la 

toor'), 105, 231. 
Plymouth, Eng., 346. 

Mass., 314. 
Po, 157. 

Podo'lia, 2S3, 288. 
Poissy (pwa se), 205. 
Poitiers (pwa te a'), 19, 32, 76, 97, 

102. 
Poitou (pwa too'), 86, 219, 241. 
Poland, Poles, IS, 79, 81, 84, 95, 
124,219, 244-247, 250,' 251, 262, 
282-284, 308-310, 322, 337-341, 
351, 358, 366, 384, 388, 389, 401, 
406, 415, 425. 
Kings of— 
Ladislas I., Casimir III., 95. 
Henry of Valois, S. Ba- 
thori, 219. 
Sigismund III., 246, 247. 
John Casimir, 282, 283, 339. 
John Sobieski, 286, 287. 
Augustus II., 287, 307-309, 322. 
Stanislaus Leczinski, 308, 309, 

321-323. 
Augustus III., 322, 327, 336, 

338. 
Stanislaus II., 338, 339,341,342. 
Pole, Card, de la, 197. 
Polignac (po leen yak'), 404. 
Polk, 438. 

Pombal', Marquis de, 348, 349. 
Pomera'nia, 79, 252, 263, 284, 310, 

332, 333, 391, 394. 
Pompadour (-door'), 330. 
Ponce de Leon (pon' tha da la 

on'), 136, 138. 
Pondicherry (-sha re'), 345, 428, 

429. 
Pon'te Cor'vo, 382. 
Popes — 
Gregory I. (A. D. 590-604), 18. 

20, 24. 
Gregory II. (715), 33. 
Gregory III. (731;, 33, 34. 
Zacharias (741), 34. 
Stephen II. (752-757), 34. 
Adrian I. (772), 35. 
Leo III. (795-816), 36, 83. 
Leo IV. (847-855), 40. 
Gregory VI. (1044), .54. 
Clement II. (1046), 54. 
Leo IX. (1048), 50. 
Victor II., Stephen IX., Nico- 
las II., Alexander II., 54. 
Gregory VII. (1073-1086), 50, 

54-56, 62, 82, 200. 
Urban II. (1088), 62, 64. 
Paschal II., Gelasius II., Ca- 
lixtus III., Honorius II., 80. 



Pop 



INDEX. 



Rob 



Popes- 
Innocent II. (1130-1143), 80, 81. 
Innocent III. (1198J, 71-74, 83, 

87, 91,200. 
Honoriiis III. (1216), 
Gregory IX. 0227-1241), 83, 

84. 
Innocent IV. (1243-1254), 84. 
Martin IV. (1281-1285), 85. 
Celestine V. (1294), 94. 
Boniface VIII. (1294), 93-95. 
Benedict XI. (1303), 95. 
Clement V. (1305), 78, 95. 
Innocent VI. (1352-1362), 100. 
Gregory XI. (1370), 100. 
Urban VI. (1378-1389), 100. 
John XXIIl. (1410), 108. 
Martin V. (1417), 109. 
Eugenins IV. (1431), 109, 110, 

132. 
Jficolas V. (1447-1455), 140, 111. 
Pius II. (1458-1464), 110, HI. 
Sixtus IV. (1471-1484), 115, 

162. 
Alexander VI. (1492), 134, 141- 

147, 162, 163, 199. 
Pius III. (1503), 147. 
Julius II. (1503), 147-154, 160, 

162, 416. 
Leo X. (1513), 153-155, 158, 163- 

168, 199. 
Adrian VI. (1522), 168, 170, 171. 
Clement VII. (1523), 171-175, 

179-182. 
Paul III. (1534), 182, 189, 192, 

194, 199. 
Julius III. (1550), 194, 197. 
Marcellus II. (1555), 197. 
Paul IV. (1555), 197, 200, 201, 

204. 
Pius IV. (1559), 204, 207. 
Pius V. (1506), 207-212. 
Oregory XIII. (1572), 212, 228. 
Sixtus V. (1585-1590), 228, 231- 

233. 
Paul V. (1605), 248. 
■Gregory XV. (1621), 248. 
Urban VIII. (1623), 249. 
Innocent X. (1644), 264. 
Alexander VII. (1655-1667), 

277. 
Innocent XII. (1691-1700), 296. 
Clement XIII. (175S), 349. 
Clement XIV. (1769), .349. 
Pius VI. (1775), 350, 357, 370, 

371. 
Pius VII. (ISOO), 378, 380, 386, 

389, 394, 404. 
Leo XII. (1823), 404. 
Pius VIII. (1829), 406. 
Gregory XVI. (1831), 406,411. 
Pius IX. (1846), 413, 415-417, 
453. 
Port Hudson, 441. 
Port Koyal, 440. 
Porto Bello, 312, 324. 
Porto Legnano (len ya'no), 150. 



Porto Kico (re'lco), 229, 347. 
Portugal, Portuguese, 93-96, 132- 
140, 173, 221, 226, 259, 262, 302, 
313, 335, 336, 346, 348, 349, 362, 
371 , 377, 379, 385-387, 390, 394, 
402, 410. 
Sovereigns of— 
John II. (A. D. 1481), 132- 

134. 
Emmanuel I. (1495), 116, 136, 

143, 
John III. (1521), 221. 
Sebastian (1557), 221. 
Henry I. (157S), 221. 
Antonio (1580), 221, 222, 229. 
[See Spain, Philip II., III., 

IV.] 
John IV. (1640-1656), 259. 
Pedro II. (1683), 300. 
John V. (1706), 348. 
Joseph I. (1750), 335, 349. 
Maria I. (1777-1807), 386. 
John VI. (1816), 402. 
Maria da Gloria (1826), 402. 
Potem'kin, 341, 342. 
Poto'mao River, 439, 441. 
Prague, 108, 109, 178, 191, 233, 239, 
242-244, 263, 325, 327, 332, 393. 
Presburg, 381, 3&8, 389. 
Presthla'va, 57. 
Procopius, 109. 
Propon'tis, 110. 

Provence (-vonss'), 34, 46, 52, 53, 
90, 105, 170, 172, 188. 
Count of, 358, 362. 
Providence, 314. 

Prussia, 79, 94, 240, 284, 299, 310, 

321, 324, 337, 340, 346, 358, 362, 

377,380-385, 391, 400, 401, 410, 

424-426, 445-451. 

Kings of— 

Frederic I. (A. D. 1701), 299, 

304. 
Frederic William I. (1713), 310, 

321, 322, 325. 
Frederic II. (1740), 325, 327, 

329-340,342,381,383. 
Frederic William II. (1786), 

342, 350, 366. 
Frederic William III. (1797), 

381-385. 393, 413, 414. 
Frederic William IV. (1840), 

413, 414, 451. 
William I. (1861), 447-451. 
Frederic William, Crown 
Prince of, 425, 426, 447-449. 

Frederic Charles, Prince 
of, 425, 426, 450. 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 31. 
Puebla (pweb'Ia), 440. 
Pulcheria, 25. 
Pulta'wa, 309. 
Pultusk, 308. 
Punjab', 431-433. 
Pym, 268. 

Pyrenees, 16, 17, 31, 32, 36, 156, 
167, 272, 276, 278, 394. 

475 



Q 

Quatre Bras (kat'r bra'), 397. 
Quebec', 317, 334. 
Qneretaro (ka ra ta'ro), 445. 
Quir'inal, 389, 416. 

K 

Kaab, 389. 

Kacine (ra seen'), 306. 

Radetzki, 416. 

Kadziejow'ski, 308. 

Kadzivil, 339. 

Kagnar Lodbrog, 43. 

Ragotzki, 283,300. 

Rainer, 416. 

Rambouillet (rQN boo'ya), 395, 

405. 
Ram'illies, 302. 
Raphael d' Urbino, 122. 
Ra'stadt, 304, 373. 
Rathenow, 284. 
Ratisbon, ISO, 252, 256, 259, 300, 

366,367,378,382. , 
Raucoux (ro coo'), 328. 
Raven'na, 21-25, 33, 34, 41, 152, 

153, 175. 
Ravensberg, 184. 
Raymond VI. of Toulouse, 65, 
66, 89. 
VII. of Toulouse, 89. 
Re, Isle of (ra)," 249. 
Redan', 422. 

Reggio (red'jo). 142, 167, 187. 
Reichenbach (ri Ken baK), 342. 
Renee of France (reh na'), 155. 
Repnin, Prince, 339. 
Kequesens, 216, 217. 
Retz, Cardinal de, 274, 275. 
Rheims (reemz), 18,48,102,232, 

360, 404. 
Rhenskiold, 309. 
Rhine, 15-17, 20, 37-39, 63, 68, 119, 
184, 253, 257, 260, 261, 279, 292, 
294, 296, 300, 304, 331, 366, 368, 
370, 373, 380, 394, 401, 445, 447. 
Confederation of, 382, 393. 
Rhode Island, 314, 347. 
Rhodes, 78, 79, 141, 170. 
Rhone, 17, 31, 38, 39, 303. 
Rialto (re al'to).. 51. 
Richard of Cornwall, 75, 85, 87. 
Richelieu (resh le uh'), Card., 
240, 241, 248-253, 257, 260, 305. 
Duke of (Gen.), 331-333. 
Duke of (statesman), 401. 
Richmond, 440-442. 
Rienzi (re en'zee), 99, 100. 
Riga (re'ga), 284, 307, 308. 
Rimini (re'me ne), 149. 
Rio Gila (re'o he'la), 438. 
Grande, 43S. 
Janeiro (ja na ro), 386. 
Riviera (re ve a'ra), 376. 
Riv'oli (-le), 369. 
Robert the Strong, 46. 
Dukeof France, 47. 



Rob 



INDEX. 



Rus 



Kobert of Flanders, fi4, 65. 

Giiiiscard, 50, 56, 62. 
Koberval, 138. 
Robespierre (-pe §r'), 359, 360, 

363, 365. 
Bochelle', 207, 211, 249, 250, 317. 
Kocroi (rok rwa'), 260. 
Bodney, Adm., 333, 346, 347. 
lioger Gxiiscard, 50, 
Roland, Mme., 363. 
Romagna (ro man'ya), 146, 153, 

369, 370, 423. 
Romagnano (ro man ya'no), 171. 
Romainville (ro maN veel), 395. 
Romanoff Dynasty, 247, 391. 
Romanzoff, 340. 
Roman Emperors, Ancient- 
Hadrian, 22, 26. 
Diocletian, .52. 
Theodosius the Great, 36. 
Roman Republic, Ancient, 51, 
52. 

Republic, Revived, 82, 99, 
100, 370, 416. 
Roman Empire of the East, 25- 
32, 36, 40-43, .50, 53, 56-58, 64, 
72, 73, 109-111, 125-127, 141. 
Emperors of the East— 
Arcadius, Theodosius II., 
Marcian, Leo II., Zeno, 25. 
Anastasius, 19, 25. 
Justin, 25. 
Justinian (A. D. 527-565), 19, 

22-27, 120. 
Justin II., Tiberius, Maurice, 

Phocas, Heraclius, 27. 
Heraclius, Constantine III., 
Heracleonas, Oonstaas II., 
28. 
Constantine IV., Justinian 

II., Leontius Absimar, 28. 
Philippicus, Anastasius II., 

Theodosius III., 28. 
Leo III. (717-741), 28, 29, 40. 
Constantine V., Leo IV., 40. 
Constantine VI. (780-797), 36, 

40,41. 
Nicephorus, Stauracius, Mi- 
chael I., Leo v., Michael 
II., 41. 
Theophilus, 42, 53. 
Michael III., 42, .56. 
Basil I., 56. 
Leo VI., Constantine VII., 

Romanus I., 57. 
Romanus II., Nicephorus II., 

John Zimiskes, 53, 57. 
Basil II., Constantine IX., 

57, 58. 
Zoe, Theodora, Isaac I., 58. 
Romanus IV. (1068-1071), 61, 

125. 
Alexis Comnenus (1081-1092), 

50, 58, 62-64, 67. 
Manuel I. (1143-1180), 67. 
Isaac II., Angelus, Alexis 
III., Alexis IV., 71, 72. 



Roman Empire of the East, 
Latin Emperors — 
Baldwin I. (1204-1261), 72. 
Henry, Peter, Robert, John, 

Baldwin II., 73. 
Greek Emperors- 
Michael Palaeologus (1261- 

1282), 73, 77. 
John Palaeologus II. (1425- 

1448), 109, 110. 
Constantine XII. (1448-14,53), 

111, 141. 
Roman Empire Revived in the 

West, 32-33, 53, 56, 105, 107- 

109, 140, 173, 181, 191, 196, 263, 

264, 379-382, 428. 
Romans, Emperors of, in the 

West- 
Charlemagne (A. D. 800), 13, 

34-38, 41-46, 83, 149, 220,. 380, 

382. 
Louis I. (814), 37, 38. 
Lothaire (840), 38, 46, 105. 
Louis II. (855), 38, 39, 46. 
Charles II. (875), 38, 39, 46. 
Charles III. (876), 46. 
Guy ofSpoleto (891), 46. 
Lambert (894-898), 46. 
Otho I., the Great (962), 47, 

53. 
Otho II. (973), 53. 
Otho III. (983), .53, 54. 
Henry II. (1002), Conrad II. 

(1024), Henry III. (1039), 54. 
Henry IV. (1056), 50, 54-56, 62, 

63. 
Henry V. (1106), 56, 80, 86. 
Lothaire II. (1125), 80, 81. 

House of Hohenstaufen — 
Conrad III. (1138), 61,81. 
Frederic I., Barbarossa(1152), 

68, 69, 81, 82. 
Henry VI. (1191), 71, 82, 83. 
Otho IV., Philip (rivals, 1198), 

83. 
Frederic II. (1212), 75, 83, 84, 

90, 121. 
Conrad IV. (1250), 84, 85, 96. 
William of Holland (rival, 

1250-1256), 84, 85. 
House of Hapsburg— 
Rudolph I. (1273), 77, 85, 93. 
Adolph of Nassau (1292), 93. 
Albert I. (1293), 93,96. 
Henry VII. (1308), 96. 
Louis V. (1314), 97, 99. 
Charles IV. (1347), 97, 107. 
Wenceslaus (1378), 107, 108. 
Rupert (1400), 108. 
Sigismund (1410), 108, 109, 127, 

165. 
Albert IT. (1438), 111. 
Frederic III. (1440), 105, 110. 
Maximilian I. (1493), 105, 106, 

140, 143, 148-150, 159, 164. 
Charles V. (1519), 138, 146, 148, 

155-161,164-200, ?]S, 313. ■ 

476 



Romans, Emperors of. House 
ofHapsbuig— 
Ferdinand I. (1558), 198. 200, 

204, 207. 
Maximilian II. (1564), 207, 209, 

211, 214, 217. 
Rudolph II. 0576), 219, 224, 

233, 234, 239, 242. 
Matthias (1612), 242, 243. 
Ferdinand II. (1619), 243, 244, 

251-258, 324. 
Ferdinand III. (1637), 258, 262, 

263, 275, 276. 
Leopold I. (1658), 276-279, 283, 

23.5-288, 295-301. 
Joseph I. (1705), 301-303, 324. 
Charles VI. (1711), 303, 304, 

319-324. 
Charles VII. (1742), 324-327. 
Francis I. (174.5), 323, 32.5, 327. 
Joseph II. (1765), 325, 336, 340, 

342, 349-351, 3.55. 
Leopold II. (1790), 351, 3.55, 358, 

359. 
Francis II. (1792-1806), 359, 366, 

370, 374, 382. 
[See Austria, Francis I. of.] 
Rome, 15, 22, 23, 26, 33-41, .52-56, 
80-84, 95, 99, 100, 107, 110, 1.52, 
153, 162-164, 174, 176, 187, 193, 
201, 223, 231, 3.50, 370, 373, 374, 
386, 389, 416, 417, 422, 424, 453. 
King of (Duke of Roich- 
stadt),330, 401, 418. 
Bom'ulus Augus'tulus, 17, 36. 
Roncaglia (cal'ya), 81. 
Rooke, Adm., 301. 
Roon, Count von, 425. 
Rosas, 296. 
Rosecrans, 441. 
Roskild, 283. 
Ross, 400. 
Rossbach, 332. 
Rossi (-se), 416. 
Rotterdam, 212,217. 
Rouen (rwoN), 103, 144, 206, 450. 
Rouget de I'lsle (roo zha deh 

leel'), 359. 
Bourn (room), 42, 61, 64, 126. 
Solyman, King of, 126. 
Roumania, Roumanians, 407, 

422, 426. 
Roussillon (roo sel yoN'), 36, 106. _ 
Roveredo (ro va ra'do), 149, 369. 
Roxola'na, 2(i9. 
Rudolph of Suabia, 56. 
Ru'gen, 284, 394. 
Rupert, Prince Palatine, 258, 

263, 269. 
Ruremonde (rilr nioNd'), 300. 
Russell, Lord Wm., 293. 
Russia, Russians, 18, 26, 43, 50, 
57, 117, 124, 209, 235, 247, 262, 
282-285, 307-311, 322-324, 328, 
331-343, 362, 372-374, 381-385, 
391-394, 401, 406, 410,415,420- 
422, 425, 455. 



Rus 



INDEX. 



SCO 



Russia, Sovereigns of— 
Kuric (A. D. 862-S79), 43, 50, 

247. 
Vladimir I. (980-1015), 50, 57, 

5S. 
Yaroslav I. (1019-1055), 50. 
Michael III. (1613), 247. 
Alexis (1645), 282-284. 
Feodor (1676), 286. 
Ivan V. (1682), 286. 
Peter I. (Emperor— 1689), 282, 

286,287,307-311. 
Catherine I. (17251, 310, 321- 

323. 
Peter II. (1727), 323, 324. 
Anna (1 730), .324. 
Ivan VI. (1740), 337. 
Elizabeth (1741), 325, 3.30, 335. 
Peter III. (1762), 335-337, 384. 
Catherine II. (1762), 336-342, 

346, 3.50, 358, 372, 408. 
Paul I. (1796), 377, 378. 
Alexander I. (1801), 378, 380, 
381, 384, 385, 391-396, 400-405, 
408. 
Nicholas (1825), 405, 406, 409, 

415,419-421. 
Alexander II. (1855), 421. 
Eutli (-le), 96. 
Kutow'ski(-ske),327. 
Rymenants, 223. 
Byswick (ris'wik), 295, 318. 



Saalfeld (sal'felt), 383. 

Saarbrticken (sar bruk'en), 448. 

Sabatz, 170. 

Sad'owa, 426. 

St. Aldegonde, 225, 227. 

St. Andre (an dre), 205. 

St. Angelo, Castle of, 22, 56, 174, 

175, 373. 
St. Arnaud (-no), 418. 
St. Augustine, town of, 136, 211. 
St. Bartholomew's, 211, 216, 219. 
St. Bavou, 185. 
St. Benedict, 90. 
St. Bernard, 376. 
St. Boniface, 18, 35. 
St. Bruno, 90. 
St. Cloud (kloo), 404, 405. 
St. Croix, River (krwa), 347. 

Island, 385. 
St. Denis (saN d'nee'), 232. 
St. Dizier (de ze a), 187, 395. 
St. Germains (zher maN'), 207, 

210. 
St. Gildas de Rhuys (zheelda 

deh rwe'), 81. 
St. Gothard, 285, 374, 376. 
St. Hele'na, .397. 
St. Ildefon'so, 371. 
St. Janua'rius, 373. 
St. Jerome, Order of, 198. 
St. John of Jerusalem, Knights 

of, 66, 69, 75-79, 96, 141, 170, 

208, 372, 377, 378. 



St. John River, 211, 343, 347. 

St. Lambert, 397. 

St. Lawrence, River and Gulf. 

136, 138,314,330,343. 
St. Lucie, 367. 
St. Ma'lo, 138. 
St. Mark, 51,72, 426. 
St. Maura, 288. 
St. Omer (saNt omer'), 280. 
St. Peter (Papacy), 64, 152, 200. 
St. Quentin (saN koN taN'), 201, 

202. 
St. Stephen, crown of, 179, 350, 

415, 427. 
St. Thomas, 385. 
St. Vincent, Cape, 132. 
Saladin, 68-71, 78, 127. 
Salaman'ca, 390. 
Salankemen, 287. 
Salem, 314. 
Saler'no, 50, 56, 83. 
Salians, Salic Laws, 17, 18, 24, 

97, 411. 
Salle, Robert dela, 317, 318. 
Salzburg (saltz'boorg), 379, 389. 
Samarcand, 39, 119, 125. 
San Domin'go, 229, 367, 378. 
San Francis'co, 439, 443. 
San Gabriel, 438. 
San Juan de Ulioa (-hwan-), 

438. 
San Salvador', 133. 
San Sebas'tian, 394, 446. 
Santa Anna, 437, 438. 
Santa Cruz, 272. 
Santa Fe (fa'), 438. 
Santarem (-reN'), 390. 
Santa Sophia (so fe'a), 26. 
Santiago (san te a'go), 138, 229. 
Saone (son), 39. 
Saphadin,71, 73. 
Saphoury, 76. 

Saracens, 13, 17, 28-33, 39, 42, 44, 
48-53, 56-62, 65, 68, 70, 78, 83, 
95, 119. 
Saragos'sa, 35, 387, 390. 
Saratoga, 345. 

Sardinia, 17, 23, 25, 52, 140, 182, 
206, 302, 304, 320, 324, 328, 358, 
362,368, 416,421,422. 
Kings of— 
Victor Amadeus (1720-1730), 

320. 
Victor Amadeus III. (1773- 

1796), .369. 
Victor Emmanuel I. (1802), 

403. 
Charles Felix (1821), 403. 
Charles Albert (1831), 406, 416. 
Victor Emmanuel II. (1849), 
416, 422, 423. [King of Italy, 
1861.] 
Sarre, 257, 301, 401. 
Sassan'idse, 27. 
Savan'nah, 346, 441. 
Save, .369. 
Savonaro'la, 141, 143, 175. 

477 



Savoy', 139, 140, 149, 169, 179, 182, 
183, 187, 197, 262, 295, 296, 300. 
Dukes of— 
Amadeus VIII. (1391-1451), 

110. 
Emmanuel .Philibert (1553), 

197, 198, 201, 202. 
Charles Emmanuel( 1580-1630), 

236, 249. 
Victor Amadeus II. (1675), 
302, 304, 320. [King of Sar- 
dinia, 1720.] 
Saxe, Marshal, 326-328. 
Saxe Weimar (vi'mar), Duke 

Bernhard of, 255-258. 
Saxons, 17-20, 35, 37, 43. 
Saxony, 44, 71, 80-82, 109, 250, 
253, 254, 327, 331, 336, 393, 394, 
413,414,424, 425. 
Electors of— 
Frederic the Wise (A. D. 1486), 

162-165. 
John the Steadfast (1525), 180. 
John Frederic (1.532), 180, 189, 

190, 193, 195. 
Maurice (1548), 190, 194-196. 
Augustus (15.53-1586), 196. 
[See Poland, Augustus I. and 

II., Kings of.] 
Christian II. (1591), 239. 
John (Jeorge I. (1611-1656), 244, 

252, 257, 258. 
Frederic Augustus 111.(1763), 
383, 385. [King of Saxony, 
1807.] 
Dukes of— 
George, 177. 
Henry the Pious, 185. 
Maurice, 189, 190. 
Scanderbeg, 127, note. 
Scandinavians, 38, 43. 
Scheldt (skelt), 15, 17, 210, 229, 

239,361, 406. 
Schel'lenberg, 300. 
Sche'rer ( sha'rer), 373. 
Schleitz (shlits), 383. 
Schleswig (-vig), 245, 250, 251, 
261, 283, 310, 413, 414, 424, 425. 
Schoeffer, Peter, 119. 
Schomberg (shom'berg), 291. 
Schonbrunn (shon broon), 389. 
Schonen (sho'nen), 251, 261. 
Schwartz (shviirts), 118. 
Schwartzeuberg, 394, 395. 
Schwatz, 388. 
Schweidnitz (shvit nits), 260, 

335, .3.36. 
Scilly Isles, 16. 
Scinde(sind),431. 
Scio, 340, 409. 

Scotland, 17, 63, 86, 88, 93, 94, 186, 
191-193, 202, 203, 205, 269, 273, 
294, 302. 
Sovereigns of— 
John Baliol (A. D. 1292-1296), 

8S. 
James IV. (1488), 155. 



Sco 



INDEX. 



Swi 



Scotland, Sovereigns of— 
James V. (1513), 184, 186, 191. 
Mary (1542), 186, 191, 194, 202, 

205, 206, 210, 223, 228. 
James VI. (1567), 210. [King 

of England, 1603.] 
Scott, Gen., 438. 
Scotus, Duns, 120. 
Scythians, 30, 43, 124, 126. 
Sedan (seh doN'), 237, 240, 448, 

449. 
Sedgemoor', 293. 
Segur, Count de (sa giir'), 345. 
Seine (san), 16, 17, 43, 46, 379, 

380, 449. 
Seld, Chancellor, 198. 
Seljukian Dynasty, 61, 65, 123- 

126. 
Semina'ra, 142, 146. 
Seminoles, 437. 
Semlin, 170. 
Sem'pach, 107. 

Senegal, 280, 334, 336, 345, 347. 
Senlis (son le'), 106. 
Sens (SON), 81, 189. 
Septima'nia, 32, 34. 
Sering'apatam', 430. 
Ser'via, 126, 324, 407, 422. 
Sostos River, 132. 
Sev'asto'pol, 57, 342, 420-422. 
Sev'ille, 134, 135, 312, 387, 390. 
Sevres (sev'r), 450. 
Sforza, Giacomuzzo (jak'o 

moot'so sfort'ea), 109. 
Francesco, 113. 
Gian Galeazzo (jau gal a 

at so), HO. 
Ludovico (loo do ve'ko), 

140, 142, 145, 149, 153. 
Maximilian, 153, 155, 157. 
Francesco II., 158, 173, 174, 

248. 
Shaftesbury, 315. 
Shanghai (-hi), 431. 
Shenando'ah, 441. 
Sherman, Gen., 441, 442. 
Shovel, Sir C, 302. 
Sibe'ria, 323, 406. 
Sicily, 21-23, 26, 28, 40, 50, 57, 68, 

77, 83-85, 93, 94, 115, 117, 142, 

304, 323, 382, 403, 416, 423, 424. 
Sick'ingen, 176, 177. 
Sidney, Algernon, 293. 

Philip, 228. 
Sidon,71. 
sien'a, 147,201. 
Sier'ra Leo'ne, 132. 
Sievershausen (se'vers how' 

zen), 190. 
Sieyes (se ya'), 356, 375. 
Sigismund of the Tyrol, 133. 
Sikhs, 431, 432. 
Sile'sia, 124, 321, 322, 325,327,329, 

330, 332-336, 394. 
Silis'tria, 420. 

Silvio Pellico (pel le'ko), 403. 
Simplon (saN ploN), 371. 378, 390. 



Simson, 451. 

Singapore', 430. 

Sino'pe, 420. 

Sissek, 234. 

Sisto'vo, 342. 

Sitvatorok, 234. 

Slavonia, 64, 149, 179, 268, 286. 

Slavonians, 18, 25, 27, 28, 53, 58, 

126, 407, 413, 415. 
Slidell, 440. 
Sluys (slois), 238. 
Smith, Capt. John, 314. 

Sir Sidney, 375. 
Smolen'sko, 282, 392. 
Smyr'na, 409. 
Sobies'ki, James, 308. 
Soissons (swas son'), 71, 81. 
Soltikcff, 333. 
Solway Moss, 186. 
Somerset, Duke of, 193, 194. 
Sbm'mering Pass, 180. 
Sophia of Russia, 286, 288. 
Sorbonne', 231. 
Sorr, 327. 
Sorren'to, 56. 
So'to, Ferd. de, 138. 
Soubise (soo bez'), 331. 
Soult (soolt), 374, 388, 390, 394. 
Spain, Spaniards, 17, 19, 21, 26, 
30-32, 35, 37, 40, 42, 44, 91, 93, 
96, 106, 114-121, 131-143, 1.55, 
158-161,166,172, 184, 189, 198- 
206, 235-244, 248, 249, 258-263, 
271-280, 295-298, 305, 312-314, 
321-324, 328, 334-336, 345-349, 
351, 358,362, 371,378,385-391, 
394, 402, 410, 411, 437, 444-446, 
453. 
Sovereigns of— 
Philip and Joanna (A. D. 
1.504 in Castile), 143, 146, 148, 
156, 159, 166, 198. 
Charles I. (1516). Rom. Emp. 

Charles V. 
Philip II. (1556), 138, 185, 197- 

233, 235, 280. 
Philip III. (1591), 233, 237, 238, 

248, 312. 
Philip IV. (1621), 240, 248, 262, 

271, 277,278. 
Charles II. (1665), 296-298, 313. 

House of Bourbon- 
Philip V. (1700), 297, 298, 300- 

305,313,319-321,324,328. 
Ferdinand VI. (1746), 328, 334. 
Charles III. (1759). [King of 

Two Sicilies, 1734.] 
Charles IV. (1788), 367,377,387. 
Joseph I. (1808). See Bona- 
parte, Joseph. 
Ferdinand VII. (1814), 386, 

387, 394,401,411. 
Isabella II. (1833-1868), 411, 

445, 446. 
Amadeo (1870-1873), 4.53. 
Spezzia (spet'ze a), 52. 
Spino'la, 238, 244. 

478 



Spires, 56, 178, 187, 358, 447. 
Spole'to (-la'to), 44, 46, 75. 
Staiford, Lord, 292. 
States General, French, 97, 117, 

204, 205, 220, 241, 353-359. 
Steinkirk (stin kerk), 295. 
Stenbock, 309. 
Stephen of Chartres, 64, 66. 
Stettin, 263, 284, 310, 383. 
Stirling, 88. 
Stockach, 373. 
Stockholm, 245, 285. 
Stockton, 438. 
StofBet (-fla),367. 
Stolbo'va, 247. 
Strafford, Earl of, 268. 
Stralsund (stral'soond), 310. 
Stras'bourg, 189, 195, 290, 358, 

406, 418, 4.50. 
Stratford de Kedcliffe, 410, 420. 
Stuart, James Francis, 299, 302, 
319,322. 
Charles Edward, 326, 333. 
Stuttgart (stoot'gart), 388. 
Stuyvesant (sti've sant), 315. 
Styria, So, 93, 140, 285. 
Suabia, 38, 44, 56, 69, 72, 105, 107, 

177, 336. 
Suevi, 17. 

Suger (sii zha), 88. 
Sully (sul'ye), 236, 240, 248. 
Surrey, Earl of, 168. 
Susa, 374. 
Sutlej, 431. 

Suwarof, 339, 342, 373, 374. 
Sweden, Swedes, 245-247, 250, 
258-261, 278, 280-285, 307-311, 
315, 321, 325, 334, 336, 338, 342, 
346, 362, 377, 385, 391, 394, 
401. 
Kings and Queens of— 
Margaret Waldemar (A. D. 

1389), 245. 
Eric, Christian I., John II., 

Christian II., 245. 
Gustavus Vasa (1523), 245, 246. 
Eric IV., John III., 246. 
Sigismund, Charles IX., 246, 

247. 
GustavusAdolphus(1611),247, 

250-255, 258, 260. 
Christina (1633), 252, 261, 281. 
Charles X. (1654), 263, 281-284. 
Charles XT. (1660), 284, 285. 
Charles XII. (1697), 285, 307- 

310. 
Ulrica and Frederifc (1719- 

1751), 310, 336. 
Gustavus III. (1771), 338, 358. 
GustavusIV. (1792), 385. 
Charles XIII. (1809), 385, 391. 
Charles XIV. (1818), 404, 413. 
Oscar 1.(1844-1859), 413. 
Switzerland, Swiss, 17, 38, 93, 
96, 107, 139, 145, 150-159, 165, 
166, 182, 263, 355, 360, 362, 371, 
374,390,401,406, 414,452. 



Sya 



INDEX. 



Utr 



S7a'grius, 18. 

Sydney, 434. 

Symeon, Patriarch, 62. 

Symmachus, 22. 

Syracuse, 57. 

Syria, 27, 30-32, 62, 66, 68, 71, 75, 

125, 160, 375, 410, 420. 
Szegedin (sej'ed een'), HI. 
Szigeth (se gethj, 209. 



Taborites, 109. 

Tacitus, 18. 

Tagina (ta ge'na), 23. 

Tagus, 133, 387, 390. 

Talavera (-va ra), 390. 

Talleyrand, 371, 382, 401. 

Tancred, 64, 66. 

Tanucci (ta noot'che), 323. 

Taran'to, 62, 64, 111. 

Tarik, 31. 

Tartars, Tartary, 27, 28, 42, 61, 

75, 79, 84, 123-125, 283-287, 324, 

333,339,341,421,432. 
Tarsus, 64. 
Tasma'nia, 435. 
Taunton, 293. 
Tau'rida, 341. 
Taylor, Zachary, 438. 
Tekeli, 285. 
Temesvar (tern esh var'), 195, 

287, 320, 415. 
Templars, 66-69, 75-79, 93, 95, 96. 
Tennessee', 440, 441. 
Tephri'ke, 42, 56. 
Terouenne', 155, 196. 
Testri (-tre), 20. 
Tet'zel, 163,164. 
Teutonic Knights, 66, 69, 75, 79, 

94, 124, 234. 
Teutonic Race, 17-23, 32, 39, 162. 
Texas, 317, 318, 437-440. 
Texel, 379. 

Thames (temz), 47, 87. 
Theatins, 197. 
Theiss (tis), 287. 
Theodolin'da, 24. 
Theodo'ra, Empress, 25. 

Empress regent, 42. 
Theoph'aiio, 53. 
Thermopylre, 408. 
Thes'saloni'ca, 57. 
Thihaud (te bo'), 71. 
Thierry, Chateau (sha to' te er' 

re), 187. 
Thiers (te er'), 410, 411, 449, 451. 
Thionville (te on veel'), 261. 
Thor, 18. 

Thorn, 284, 308, 340. 
Thrace, 25, 40, 126. 
Thuringia, Thuringians, 17, 44, 

165, 332. 
Thurn, Count (toorn), 242, 243. 
Tiber, 187, 380. 
Tiberias, Lake, 68. 
Ticino (te che'no), 423. 



Tigris, 37, 40. 

Tilly, Count, 244, 250-254, 258. 
Tilsit, 384, 385, 391, 392. 
Timour (te moor), Tamerlane, 

123-125, 127. 
Tippoo Saib, 430. 
TIascala, 136. 
Todleben (tOt'la ben), 421. 
Togrul Beg, 61,125. 
Tokay, 179. 
Tole'do, 183. 
Tolentino (-te'no), 369. 
Tolna, 178. 

Tonquin (-keen), 124. 
Torbay', 294. 
Tordesillas, 134, 136. 
Torgau (-gow'), 177, 333, 334. 
Tor'res Vedras (va'dz'as), 390. 
Torstenson, 260, 261. 
Torto'na, 368, 374. 
Tortu'ga, 313. 

Toul (tool), 191, 195, 202, 263, 3.58. 
Toulon (too Ion'), 187, 306, 333, 

334, 364, 372. 
Toulouse (too looz), 48, 64, 74, 

89, 90, 91,395, 401. 
Touraine (too ran), 86, 220. 
Tournay (toor na'), 167, 188, 327. 
Tours (toor), 32, 450. 
Tourville (toor veel'), 296. 
Toussaint rOuverture(toosaN' 

loo ver ttir'), 378. 
Trafalgar', 381. 
Transylvania, 23, 94, 195, 218, 

234, 243, 283, 286-288. 
Travendal', 307, 309. 
Trebia, 374. 
Treb'izond, 73. 
Trent, 1.59, 299. 

Council of, 188, 189, 192, 

194, 195, 204, 207. 
Steamer, 440. 
Treves, 105, 257, 261, 279, 290, 301, 

366. 
Electors of, 160, 177, 253, 

257, 261, 278. 
Treviso (tra ve'so), 149. 
Trina'cria, 94. 
Trinidad', 378. 
Trip'oli in Africa, 27, 271. 

in Syria, 66, 67. 
Tripolit'za, 408. 
Trivulzio (tre voolt'ze o), 145, 

157. 
Trocliu (tro shu'), 449. 
Troyes (trwa), 102. 
Tudors, 103, 156. 
Tuileries (twel rees), 357-360, 

367, 376, 396, 405, 412, 449, 452. 
Tunis, 77, 182,271. 
Turenne', 261, 275, 279, 280, 295. 
Turin', 24, 157, .302, 374, 376, 423. 
Turks, Turkey, 18, 26, 27, 58, 61- 

69, 77, 82, 109-112, 116, 122-127, 

139, 149, 151, 163, 170, 178-180, 

184-188, 195-199, 208, 209, 285- 

288, 338-342, 352, 372, 374-378, 

479 



Turks, Turkey, 385, .391, 401,407- 
410, 415, 419-422,454,455. 
Sultans of— 
Othman, Orchan, Amurath 

I., 126. 
Bajazet, Mohammed I., Am- 
urath II., Mohammed II., 
127. 
Solyman I. (A. D. 1520), 127, 
140, 170, 178-182, 185, 195, 209. 
Selim II. (1566), 127, 208, 209. 
Amurath III. (1574), 234. 
Mohammed III. (1.59.5), 234. 
Othman II. fl618), 245. 
Mustapha, Amurath IV, 

(1623J, 245. 
Mohammed IV. (1649), 287. 
Solyman III. (1687), 287. 
Mustapha II. (1695), 287. 
Achmet III. (1703-1730), 309. 
Mahmoud II. (1808), 409, 410. 
Abdul fliedjid (1840-1861), 410, 
420. 
Tuin'hout, 233. 

Tuscany, 44, 80, 93, 113, 201, 262, 
304, 320-323, 351, 366, 369, 373, 
379,401,416,422,423. 

Ferdinand, Grand Duke 

of, 379. 

Two Sicilies, .50, 83, 334, 362, 382. 

Kings of— 

Charles III. (1734), 320-323, 334. 

Ferdinand I.* (1759), 334, 373, 

374, 382, 403. 
Francis I. (1825), 406. 
Ferdinand II.* (1830), 406, 416. 
Francis II. ( -1860), 424. 
[* I. and II. of the united 
kingdom, IV. and V. of Na- 
ples.] 
Tybee Island, 440. 
Tyburn, 249, 273. 
Tycho Brahe (bra), 233, 246. 
Tyre, 68, 69,71,77. 
Tyrol, Tyrolese, 105,140,144, 189, 
195, 325, 369, 370, 381, 388, 394. 

U 

Uhlans (oo'lans), 426. 
Ukraine, 282, 284, 288, 309, 324. 
Ulm (oolm), 380, 381, 383. 
United States (Am.), 211, 316, 

346, 347, 352, 377, 379, 399-401, 

406, 414,437-445. 
Universities, 83, 104,108,120, 162, 

164, 176, 181, 188. 
Unterwalden (oon'ter val'den), 

96. 
Uranienborg (oo ra'ne en-), 246. 
Urbino (cor be'no), 167, 168, 175, 

179. 
Uri (oo're), 96. 
Ush'ant, 366. 
U'tica, 182. 
U'trecht, 184, 216, 217, 221, 227. 

279. 



TJtr 



INDEX. 



Zwi 



U'trecht, Treaty of, 303-S05, 313, 
319, 330. 



Valais (va la), 379, 390, 401. 
ValeDcai (v3 Ion sa'), 387. 
Valence (va Ionss'), 104, 371. 
Yalen'cia, 114, 301, 302, 387. 
Valenciennes (va Ion se en')i 217, 

359, 363. 
Valentinois (va loN te nwa'),192. 
Valet'ta, La Valette', 208, 372. 
Val'ladolid', 135. 
Valois, House of (val wa'), 98, 

104, 144, 231. 
Charles of, 90. 
Valtelline', 153, 248, 249. 
Vandals, 17, 18, 22, 23, 25, 82, 371. 

Kings of the, 25. 
Van Diemen's Land, 435. 
Van Tromp, 270. 
Varangians, 43. 
Varennes (va ren'), 358. 
Var'na, 111, 127. 
Var'nitz, 310. 
Vasa Dynasty, 245. 
Vasvar, 285. 
Vatican, 40, 71, 110, 168, 174, 212, 

389. 
Vauban (vo boN'), 279, 290, 292, 

295. 
Vaucelles (vo sel'), 201. 
Valid (vo), 371. 

Vaudois (vo dwa), 188, 189, 275. 
Venables, 271. 

Vendee, La (von da'), 363, 367. 
Veiidome, Dukes of (von dom'), 

172, 301, 3112. 
Veuetia, 423-426. 
Venice, Venetians, 24, 41, 51, 52, 

71-73, 78, 79, 82, 111-114, 119, 

132, 133, 142, 144, 148, 149-153, 

158, 159, 173, 175, 184, 209, 234, 

285-288, 320, 369, 370, 373, 381, 

393, 416. 
Venloo', 300. 
Vera Criiz, 302, 438. 
Vercelli (ver chel'le), 197. 
Verde, Cape, 346. 
Verdun', 38, 39, 194, 195, 202, 263, 

358,361. 
Vermandois (ver maN dwa'), 64. 
Vernon, Adm., 324. 
Vero'na, 149, 150, 370, 373, 393, 

408, 423. 
Verrazano (-tsa'no), 138. 
Versailles (ver say'), 345, 353, 

357,449-453. 
Vervins (ver vaN'), 236. 
Vesprim, 234. 

Vespucci (ves poot'che), 136. 
Vezelay', 67. 
Viazma, 392. 

Vicenza (ve chen'za), 149-151. 
Vicksburg, 440, 441. 
Victoria, 435. 



Vien'na, 71, SO, 179, 234, 240, 243, 
260, 285, 286, 321-323, 350, 366, 
369, 373, 381, 3S3, 388, 389, 396, 
400, 401, 414, 415, 420, 424, 449. 

Vienne', Dauphiny, 104, 170, 374. 

Viglius, 212. 

Villafran'ca, in Piedmont, 157. 
in Lombardy, 423. 

Villars, 300, 304, 322, 323. 

Vil'la V'icio'sa, 303. 

Villeroy (vel rwa), 299. 

Vimeira, 387. 

Vincennes', 89, 380. 

Vinea, Peter de, 121. 

Vinoy (ven wa'), 452. 

Violante, 75. 

Virginia, 314, 316, 330, 440, 441. 

Visconti (-te), 112, 142. 

Valentina, 98, 113, 144. 

Visigoths, 17-21. 

Vist'ula, 16, 384, 391, 394. 

Vitto'ria, 394. 

Volhyn'ia, 283. 

Voltaire', notes, 352, 378. 

Vorarl'berg, 381. 

Vosges (vozh), 450„ 

W 

Wa'gram, 389. 

Waitzen (vit'sen), 234, 286, 415. 

Walcheren (val ke ren), 215. 

Waldstatten (vald stet ten), 96. 

Wales, 17, 63, 88. 

Wallace, William, 88. 

Wallachia C-la'ke a), 17, 23, 234, 

287, 324, 340, 341, 387, 407, 420, 

422. 
Wallenstein (val'len stin'), 243, 

244,250-256, 268. 
Walloons, Walloon Provinces, 

210, 212, 224, 225, 252, 278. 
Walpole, 326. 
Walter the Penniless, 63 
Warsaw, 282, 283, 308, 322, 341, 

406. 
Grandduchy, 391. 
Warwick, Earls of, 76, 103, 194. 
Washington, 344-348. 

City, 400, 440-442. 
Waterloo, 397, 404. 
Weinsberg (vinz'berg), 81. 
Weissemburg (vi'sem boorg), 

448. 
Wellinghansen (-how'zen), 335. 
Wellington, Duke of. 387, 390, 

394, 395, 397. 
Werner, Irnerius, 120. 
Wessex, 17, 42, 
Westminster, 280. 
Westphalia, 91, 92, 96, 332. 

Kingdom of, 385, 390, 394, 

449. 
Treaty of, 262-264, 274-276, 

279,281, 297. 
Wicliffe, 108, 120, 199. 
Wil'helmsho'he, 449. 



William Bras de Fer (bra deh 
fer), 49. 

William the Silent. See Or- 
ange-Nassau, Wm. I. of. 

Williams, Roger, 314, 315. 

Windischgratz (vin'dish grets), 
415. 

Winifrid, 18. 

Winkelried (vink'el reet), 107. 

Wirtemberg, 377, 381, 382, 388, 
413, 414,447,451. 

Wismar, 310. 

Wissegrad, 234, 286. 

Witgenstein (vit gen stin), 392. 

Wittenberg, 162-164, 176, 190,333. 

Wittstock, 258. 

Wolfe, Gen., 334. 

Wolsey, 161, 167, 168, 171. 

Worcester, Eng. ( woos ter), 270. 

Worms, 36, 161, 164, 165, 167. 

Wiirth (vert), 448. 

Wrangel (Ger.) (vrang'el), 424. 
(Swede), 263, 283. 

Wurmser (voorm'zer), 369. 



Xavier (zav'ier), 313. 

Xeres (ha res'), 31. 

Xerxes, 393. 

Ximenes (zi mee' nez), 159, 160. 



Yenikale (-ka'la), 421. 
York, 37, 46, 210, 268. 

House of, 103, 104, 156, 197. 

Edmund, Duke of, 99. 

Richard, Duke of, 103. 

James, Duke of, 277, 292, 
293, 315. [James II., King 
of England.] 

in Canada, 399. 
Yorktown, 346. 
Ypres (eep'r), 275, 280, 366. 
Ypsilanti (ip'se lan'te), 408. 
Yssel(is'sel),217. 
Yuste (yoos'ta), 198. 



Zanow', 108. 

Zapolya, son, 195, 209. 

Za'ra, 70-72. 

Zealand (zee'land), 213, 215, 216, 

227, 250. 
Zendecan, 125. 
Zenghi (ge), 67. 
Zenghis Khan, 75, 84, 123-127, 

341 
Zeuta, 237. 
Ziska, 109. 
Zizim, 141. 
Znaym (znim), 389. 
Zulpich (tsul'pik), 18. 
Zurich (zu'rik), 165, 374. 
Zut'phen, 105, 184, 186, 228. 
Zweibriicken (tswi'-), 240. 
Zwingli, Ulrich, 165, 166. 



480 



1002. 



FEB 19 1902 



